Conservation and use of traditional vegetables in Uganda

Elizabeth Byanjeru Rubaihayo
NARO, Kawanda Agricultural Research Institute, Kampala, Uganda

Abstract

Uganda is endowed with agroclimatic conditions suitable for the cultivation of a wide range of African indigenous vegetables. However, few of these plants are domesticated, the majority being wild or volunteer plants. They are abundant in the rainy seasons but scarce during the dry season, except a few grown mainly for selling in trading centres and urban markets. Conservation is far from satisfactory. Most of the germplasm collected in 1943, 1969-74 and 1980-84 has been lost. Current efforts to collect and conserve traditional vegetables have been hampered by lack of funds. No collecting has been done since 1993. Documentation work was being done by the Agricultural Research Institute, but was stopped in 1993 when the taxonomist joined the Banana Research Programme. However, the National Agricultural Research Organization (NARO) is planning to revive conservation of traditional vegetables as a priority. The most important traditional vegetables in Uganda are Amaranthus spp., Phaseolus vulgaris, Phaseolus lunatus, Vigna unguiculata, Sesamum indicum, Manihot esculenta, Corchorus spp., Cucurbita spp. and Solarium aethiopicum. They contain protein, calcium, phosphorus, potassium, iron and vitamins A, B and C in important quantities and are either curative or preventive of a number of diseases. The list of traditional vegetables used as folk medicine is long, and includes Bidens pilosa, Cassia obtusifolia, Celosia argentea, Commelina benghalensis, Corchorus spp., Guizontia abyssinica, Hibiscus spp., Lagenaria siceraria, Luffa cylindrica, S. indicum, Solanum indicum subsp. distichum, Tamarindus indica and Tribulus spp. Traditional vegetables are also used to obtain various other products. Efforts are being made to increase awareness of the importance of traditional vegetables among rural women, and to encourage the general population to cultivate and consume these species.

Introduction

Uganda has relatively good soils, a mild climate and a well-distributed rainfall in most areas. It is divided into 11 major agroclimatic zone districts (Table 1), each with its own traditional agricultural system, a particular mode of livelihood and distinct communities which have evolved their own food preferences and habits. In normal times, there is abundant food supply to meet human requirements. The staple foods are plantain (matooke), sorghum, millet, maize, cassava, sweet potatoes and yams, usually supplemented with a sauce made from a range of different species. These are Uganda's traditional vegetables, plant species which are either indigenous or which were introduced a long time ago and are now being cultivated; their leaves are used as a necessary accompaniment to the staple food. Different species grow in all the geographical regions of Uganda, but the level of their cultivation and consumption varies with the nature of local customs, beliefs, staple foods of the people in the region and soil/climatic conditions.

In Uganda, traditional vegetables have been credited as a major source of ascorbic acid and various micronutrients in the diet (Goode 1989). They add taste, increase palatability and complement the nutritional value of basic staple foods. According to the FAO Food Balance Sheet for Uganda, traditional food plants supply about 90% energy, 76% protein and 63% fat, and most of vitamins A and C, iron and dietary fibre.

Table 1. Agroclimatic zones and agricultural systems in Uganda (from Sserunjogi 1988).

Zone, District		Agricultural system	Mode of livelihood
1. Busoga, Bukedi		Banana, millet and cotton system with outliers of main coffee/banana system	Cultivation dominant
2. Bugisu, Sebei		Mountain system: arabica coffee/banana (wheat and maize in Sebei)	Cultivation dominant
3. Teso		Teso systems: finger millet, cotton and cattle-keeping (mixed agriculture)	Cultivation, stock-raising
4. Karamoja		Pastoral system: cattle-keeping; also sorghum	Cultivation, hunting and collecting
5. Lango, Acholi		Northern system: finger millet, cotton, tobacco, some mixed agriculture	Cultivation dominant
6. West Nile, Madi		West Nile system: basic agriculture like zone 5 but with predominance of cassava as staple food	Cultivation dominant
7. Bunyoro/Toro		Arabica and robusta coffee and banana	Cultivation dominant
	a) Mountains	system, mountain system: heterogeneous
	b) Plains	agriculture but basically banana, coffee, tea
8. Ankole		West mountain systems - pastoral East;
	a) Pastoral	arable and robusta coffee, tea, banana,	a) Nomadic herding.
	b) Cultivation	cattle	b) Cultivation/stock-raising
9. Kigezi		Mountain systems but with larger annual	Cultivation dominant
	a) Kisoro	crop acreage than other mountain systems;
	b) Kabale	sorghum is major staple; arabica coffee, tea
10. Lake Victoria, Crescent		Main robusta coffee and banana system: coffee, bananas, tea, cocoa, sugar	Cultivation dominant
11. Northern Buganda		Western extension of banana/millet/cotton system, but now largely taken up by big ranching projects	Cultivation, stock-raising, fishing

Source: An evaluation of the use of traditional Ugandan weaning foods, especially fermented foods, in the management of diarrhoea. UNICEF, Uganda.

This paper gives an account of the use of traditional vegetables in Uganda based on the studies of Goode (1969, 1974, 1989), Kakitahi (1984), FAO (1988), Rubaihayo (1994a, 1994b) and others.

Conservation

The earliest detailed information on traditional vegetable germplasm collection and conservation in Uganda is by Purseglove (1943). The collection, however, has since been lost. The currently available information on collections and conservation of traditional vegetables is by Goode (1969, 1974, 1989), who made a collection of over 160 species of traditional vegetables from 11 agroclimatic districts of Uganda (Table 1). Some of the collection was planted at Kawanda Agricultural Research Institute (KARI) and Bukalasa Agricultural College. However, most of this collection has been lost.

Current investigations have so far documented 34 species of traditional vegetables (Table 2). Twenty-one species of these occur throughout Uganda (Goode 1974). Most of the samples were obtained from communities living in Buganda region, Kabarole, Jinja, Tororo, Mbale, Soroti, Hoima, Kabale, Masaka, Mbarara, Kasese and Bushenyi districts of Uganda. These represent a small fraction of the 160 species originally identified by Goode (1974) as being used as vegetables in Uganda. Efforts are being made to make a national collection, in the hope of recovering the remaining species (Rubaihayo 1994b). However, it is expected that a number of species will have disappeared from certain areas because of bush fires, drought and human pressure on their ecological niches. The disappearance of some vegetables in some areas may also be a consequence of the introduction of improved agricultural techniques, which treat many traditional vegetables as weeds. The introduction of exotic vegetables, preferred by farmers for urban markets, has not helped to conserve the traditional vegetables. The dependency of rural populations on volunteer plants during the rainy seasons and the lack of deliberate efforts to cultivate the vegetables in the dry season also may have contributed to the disappearance of some traditional vegetables whose seeds do not have long dormancy periods.

Efforts to conserve traditional vegetables at KARI since 1980 have not been systematic and as successful as Goode's (1969-74), mainly owing to lack of funds. The collection made in 1980-84 was lost in 1985 because of the civil war which devastated the Institute. The exercise was resumed in 1990 - but on a very small scale - using FAO funds from the 'Development of Horticultural Industry' project, which, however, did not emphasize traditional vegetables, an example of the low priority given to this sector at the policy/decision-making level. Collecting and conservation came to a standstill in 1993 with the phasing out of the FAO project. The National Agricultural Research Organisation (NARO) has yet to revive collecting and conservation of traditional vegetables. Current work includes collecting from the rural areas, characterization, evaluation and seed storage at room temperature at KARI. The collection is tested for germination at 6-month intervals to monitor seed viability.

Food value and uses of traditional vegetables

Recent surveys have revealed that vitamin and micronutrient disorders are prevalent in the country (Kawuma and Sserunjogi 1992). Given the economic situation of most people in Uganda, the predominant diet is a vegetarian one. Traditional vegetables have been identified as a critical nutritional resource (especially in children) by a study carried out at Mwanamugimu Nutrition Services, Ministry of Health in collaboration with the Biochemistry Department, Makerere University and the Department of Home Economics, Ministry of Agriculture (Kakitahi 1984). The study suggested that families should avoid packaged or tinned baby foods and instead make nutritious foods for young babies using locally available foods, including traditional vegetables.

Traditional vegetables have high contents of protein, calcium, phosphorus, iron, potassium, carotene and vitamins A, B and C (Table 3), complementing the nutritional value of basic staple foods. In addition, the following traditional vegetables supply small amounts of starch: Cassia obtusifolia, Corchorus spp., Hibiscus spp., Ipomoea spp., L. cylindrica, Manihot esculenta, Phaseolus spp., Sechium edule, Solanum spp., Tamarindus indica and Vigna unguiculata. Cucumis spp., Hibiscus spp. (trace), Ipomoea spp., L. cylindrica and T. indica supply some sugar. Some dietary fibre is supplied by Amaranthus spp., Basella alba and Bidens pilosa, while Celosia argentea, Cucumis spp., Cucurbita maxima, Guizotia abyssinica, Lagenaria siceraria, L. cylindrica, Sesamum indicum and T. indica supply oil. This oil is mainly unsaturated fatty acids, oleic and linoleic, except that of T. indica, which contains saturated fatty acids. Hibiscus spp. also contain oleic and linoleic fatty acids. Some amino acids are only found in Cajanus cajan, C. obtusifolia, Ipomoea eriocarpa, S. indicum, Solanum aethiopicum and Solanum nigrum. Oxalate is present in Commelina benghalensis and S. indicum, while ascorbic acid is found in C. maxima and oxalic acid in Portulaca oleracea and V. unguiculata. All these food values are essential to meet human requirements, including normal growth and protection from protein/calorie malnutrition.

Some parts of traditional vegetable species are used as staple foods, like the rhizomes of C. benghalensis, mature fruits of C. maxima and root tubers of Ipomoea spp., M. esculenta and S. edule. The list of traditional vegetables used as folk medicine is long (Table 3). For example, the leaves of B. pilosa are used to treat wounds and boils; the juice to treat various eye and ear problems; a decoction for rheumatism, stomach disorders and intestinal worms and the roots for malaria. Other important medicinal traditional vegetables include C. obtusifolia, Celosia argentea, C. benghalensis, Corchorus spp., G. abyssinica, Hibiscus spp., L. siceraria, L. cylindrica, S. indicum, S. indicum subsp. distichum, T. indica and Tribulus spp.

Traditional vegetables are also used to obtain various other products such as dyes, tobacco substitutes, coffee substitutes, ornamentals, ropes, mats, sacks, pipes, ladles, containers, industrial oils including drug carriers, sponge, livestock feeds and soil fertilizers (Table 3).

Consumption of traditional vegetables

In 1968 a Rural Food Consumption survey carried out in Ankole, Busoga, Masaka and West Nile, representing western, eastern, central and northern Uganda, respectively, showed that many traditional vegetables are consumed throughout Uganda, although they are prepared differently, depending on the preferences of local communities (Goode 1989). A survey by the Home Economics Department at Bukalasa Agricultural College indicated that average consumption of traditional vegetables was 160 g per head per day during the rainy season when green leafy vegetables are abundant (Goode 1989). However, a survey of consumption in urban areas, especially among the urban poor, indicated consumption of 12 g (Grant 1957), indicating that a large proportion of the population probably does not consume adequate amounts of vegetables.

The adequacy of the quantity of traditional vegetables consumed depends on the areas of production and the composition of the staple foods (Brock et al. 1979). The recommended average daily nutrient consumption requirements are shown in Tables 4 and 5 (FAO 1988). This shows that as infants and children grow and their weight increases, their requirements for calories, protein, folic acid and iodine increase, but that for vitamin A remains constant. Iron requirement is higher in infants (14 mg), decreases between 1 and 7 years (8-9 mg) and increases to 16 mg between 7 and 10 years. In general, boys require more calories than girls of the same weight and age. For adolescents and adults (Table 5), the trend of requirement for calories and protein increases with increased weight and age. But the vitamin A requirement remains constant for all groups, except lactating mothers, for whom it is higher. There is not much change in iron and iodine requirements. All average daily requirements are increased during pregnancy and lactation (except for vitamin A).

Table 2. A list of traditional vegetables recovered from different areas of Uganda.

Scientific name	Common English name (Part eaten)‡	Traditional names§
Amaranthus dubius†	Amaranthus spinach (L)	Doodo (Lug/Bar/Ank/Kg/Tr/Yr); Eboga (Ts); Sokoo/Sokusaku (A&J); Bedegbele (Kk).
A. gracecizane†	Amaranthus spinach (L)	Embooge (Lug); lmbog(k)a (Gis); Ekiliton (Ts); Onvuga (A&J); Enje (Md); Obuga (Ach); Obug (Lag); Nyabutongo (Ank).
A. hybridus	Amaranthus spinach (L)	Goyi/goi (A&J).
A. hybridus subsp. hybridus†	Amaranthus spinach (L)	Goyi/goi (A&J); Omuriri (Ank).
A. hybridus subsp. incurvatus†	Amaranthus spinach (L)	Ebbuga ezuungu (Lug); Namutonto (Gis).
A. lividus	Amaranthus spinach (L)	Ebbuga enjanamusayi (Lug); Chesicheyet (Seb); Liwoola (Gis); Omuriri (Ank, Kg).
A. spinosus	Amaranthus spinach (not commonly eaten, L)	Doodo ow'maggwa (Lug); Losigiria (Kmj); Obuga-okuta (Ach).
Basella alba†	Vine spinach (YS, L)	Enderema (Lug, Ank. Yr, Kg, Tr); Inderema (Gis); Kurakura/Ndera (A&J).
Bidens pilosa†	Black jack (L)	Sere (Lug, Bk); Anyengomon (A&J); Bilodra (Md/RI); Abulesega (Kk); Nyabarashana (Ank).
Cajanus cajan	Pigeon peas (S)	Lapena (Ach, Lag); Ekilimite (Ts); Apena (Lag): Enkuuku (Ank, Yr, Tr).
Capsicum annuum	Chillies (L, F)	Kamulali (Lug, Gis); Kamalra (A&J); Pirpiri (Kk).
C. frutescens†	Chillies (L, F)	Kamulali (Lug); Rura (Ach); Eshenda (Ank).
Colocasia esculenta†	Cocoyam (L)	Ttimba (Lug); Mattu midolodolo (Gis); Opela (A&J); Ebitekyere (Ank); Oburagoi (Kg).
Commelina benghalensis†	Day flower (L)	Nnanda ennene (Lug); Orandi (Bk); Ekoropot (Ts); Lolo (Md); Androko (A&J).
Cucurbita maxima†	Pumpkin (L, F)	Ensujju (Lug, Ts); Essunsa (Lug); Buziriziri/Kimisebebe (Gis); Kasogo (Kg); Imunyuru (Ts); Okondo (A&J); Ebishusha/Obututu (Ank, Kg); Kedi (Kk); Enjubi/Ejubi (Md); Kicwika/konokono (Ach); Emyongo (Tr, Yr).
Gynandropsis gynandra†	African spider herb (L)	Ejjobyo (Lug); Isaga (Gis); Ekiau (Kmj); Ekaboi/Ecaboi (Rs); Ekeyo (A&J); Tegeri (Kk); Jirri (Md); Ekeyo (Lag); Eshoje (Ank).
Hibiscus cannabinus†	Kenaf, Deccan Help	Lubeera (Lug); Etoke (Kmj); Ebirai (Ts); Nyarogena (Ach).
H. esculentus	Okra (F)	Bamia (Kk, Bar, Yr); Loka/Obori (Md); Otigo-Iwoka (Bar, Ach).
H. sabdariffa†	- (L, S)	(E) malakwang (Kmj)/Ts/Bar); Kuluba (Kk); Ekiganga (Yr); Emalakwany (Ts); Malakwang (A&J); Kalabi (Md).
Ipomoea batatas	Sweet potatoes (L)	Pot-ecok (Lug).
I. eriocarpa†	- (L)	Ecadokoko (Ts); Nyamaradundu (A&J); Ecejofo (Md); Padowiakuri (Ach); Acatolao/Acatominoula (Lag).
Luffa cylindricata	Loofah gourd (L)	Kyangwe (Lug); Ekyangwe (Yr, Tr).
Manihot esculenta†	Cassava (L)	Mattu gamwogo (Gis). Chombe (A&J); Soutigbanda (Kk); Gbandabi (Md); Potmogo (Lag); Muhogo (Ank, Kg, Yr).
Phaseolus lunatus†	Lima beans (S)	Ebigaaga (Lug); Korokoco (Kk); Onguk/Orusa (A&J); Ckuku (Lag); Abongband (Ach); Obuhindihindi (Ank)..
P. vulgaris†	French beans (L, S, F)	Ebijanjaalo: L,S, Ebisobooza: L, Ebisobyo/Ebikanga: L, (Lug); Mattu wanyambi (Gis); Teiko/Ngaingai (Kk); Ebihimba (Ank, Tr, Yr).
Sechium edule	Cho-cho (L)	Ebisusuuti (Lug).
Sesamum indicum	Sim-sim (S)	Bukenyimu (Buk).
Solarium aethiopicum†	Scarlet eggplant (L)	Nakati/Nakasuga (Lug).
S. gilo	Bitter berries (F)	Entula enganda (Lug); Jagi (Ach); Entura (Ank, Kg); Enjagi (Tr, Yr).
S. indicum subsp. distichum†	Bitter berries (F)	Katunkuma (Lug); Uli (A&J); Namatala (Gis).
S. macrocarpon	Vergans (L)	Nakati nume y'akyalo (Lug).
S. nigrum (dark stem)†	- (L)	Ensugga enzirugavu (Lug); Ocokocok (Lag.).
S. nigrum (green stem)†	- (L)	Ensugga (Lug); Esufa (Gis); Enyoro (Kmj); Ociga (A&J); Lere (Kk); Ocugocuga (Ach); Ocuga (Lag); Esiiiga (Ank).
Vigna unguiculata†	Cowpea (L,S)	Eggobe/Ekiyindiru/Mpindi (Lag); Likote (Gis); Eboo/lmere (Ts); Boo/Ngor (Ach); Amuli/Obo (A&J); Nyele (Kk); Omugobe (Ank, Tr, Yr); Bojo (Lug); Maruet "wild" (Kmj); Namuri "wild" (Kk); Laputu (Kk); Enkoole (Ank).

^† Common throughout Uganda (Goode 1974).

^‡ YS = Young shoot; F = Fruit; L = Leaf; S = Seed.

^§ A & J = Alur & Jonam; Ach = Acholi; Ank = Runyankore; Bar = Baruhya; Bk = Bukedi; Buk = Bukedia; Gis = Bugisu; Kg = Rukiga; Kk = Kakwa; Kmj = Karamojong; Lag = Langi; Lug = Luganda; Md = Madi; Seb = Sebei; Tr = Rutooro; Ts = Teso; Yr = Runyoro.

Phaseolus vulgaris: L, S = Leaf and seed, L = Leaf.

Some traditional vegetables, for example Hibiscus spp. (malakwang in West Nile), impart a mucilaginous consistency to the sauce, which is much liked among the communities using maize, millets and cassava as staple foods. Malakwang is a delicacy in Northern Uganda and is cooked mixed with simsim butter, and eaten with any staple food. Other species, such as S. nigrum (ensugga), Solarium gilo (entula), S. indicum subsp. distichum (katunkuma) and Gynandropsis gynandra (ejjobyo) impart a bitter flavour which is preferred for sauce to go with banana cake (matoke) in Buganda.

Table 3. Food value and uses of the most important traditional vegetables in Uganda.

Scientific name

Starch

Sugar

Fibre

Oil

Protein

Ca

Vitamins

Fe

P

K

Amino acids

Oxalate

Unsaturated fatty acids

Part used

Region

Folk medicine and other products

A

B

C

Oleic

Linoleic

N

E

C

W

Aloe saponari

T

+

T

Flo

+

Leaves for sisal yellow dye

Amaranthus dubius

+

+

+

+

+

+

+

T

+

L

+

+

+

+

Stomach complaints

Amaranthus graecizans

+

+

+

+

+

+

+

+

+

L

+

+

+

+

Amaranthus hybridus

+

+

+

+

+

+

+

+

+

L

+

+

Tobacco substitute, red dye

A. hybridus subsp. hybridus

+

+

+

+

+

+

+

+

+

L

+

+

+

+

A. hybridus subsp. incurvatus

+

Anemia, red dye

Amaranthus lividus

+

+

+

+

+

+

+

+

+

Amaranthus spinosus

+

*

+

+

+

+

+

+

+

L

+

Asystasia gangetica

L

+

Asystasia schimperi

L

+

Basella alba

+

+

+

+

+

+

+

L,YS

+

+

+

+

Pregnanty comfort

Bidens pilosa

+

T

T

T

T

T

+

+

+

+

Leaves: wounds; boils; juice; eyes, ears; decoction: rheumatism, stomach disorders; intestimal worms; roots: malaria.

Cajanus cajan

+

+

+

+

+

S

+

+

Cassia obtusifolia

+

+

+

+

+

+

+

YS,L,S

+

Seed: coffee substitute, fermented drink, food, diabetes, opthalmia, conjunctivitis, urinary problems. Roots: skin diseases, snake bites, bilharzia. Bark: enema, gargles. Leaves: diuretic, purgative, fevers, jaundice, abdominal pains, intestinal worms, gonorrhea.

Cassia absus

L,S

+

Celosia argentea

+

+

+

+

+

+

+

YS,L

+

Fibre:ropes; ornamental, cattle forages; flowers: antihelminthic, diarrhoea. Seeds: oil, blood diseases, mouth sores, eyes, chest complaints.

Coccinea grandis

+

+

+

+

+

YS,L,F

+

Skin diseases, bronchial catarrh, bronchitis.

Colocasia esculenta

L

+

+

+

+

Commelina benghalensis

+

+

+

YS,L

+

+

+

+

Rhizomes: food. plant: leprosy, eyes, colds, earache.

Corchorus olitorius C. trilocularis C. olitorius var. incisifolius

+ + +

+ + +

+ + +

+ + +

+ + +

+ + +

+ + +

YS,L YS,L YS,L

+ + +

+ + +

Fibre: mats, sacks. C. olitorius: tonic, toothache, chest, bladder, stomach, purgative, gonorrhoea, stimulant of milk-flow.

Cucumis figarei

+

+

+

T

+

T

T

+

+

+

F,S,L

+

+

Ash: fertilizer.

Cucumis melo

+

+

+

T

+

T

T

+

F,S,L

+

+

Ash: fertilizer.

Cucurbita maxima

+

+

+

+

T

T

+

+

+

+

F,L

+

+

+

+

Mature fruit: food.

Guizotia abyssinica

+

+

+

+

+

+

S

+

+

Hedges, forage, green manure. Seed oil: birth control, syphilis, coughs.

Gynandropsis gynandra

L

+

+

+

+

Hibiscus cannabinus

+

T

+

+

+

+

+

+

+

+

+

YS,L,S

+

+

+

+

Hibiscus spp. make hedges, ropes, nets. Flowers: yellow dye; calyx: urine frequency, mild anticeptic, nerves and heart diseases, high blood pressure, calcified arteries.

Hibiscus sabdariffa

+

T

+

+

+

+

+

+

+

+

+

YS,L,S

+

+

+

+

Ipomoea eriocarpa

+

+

+

+

+

+

+

+

+

L

+

+

+

+

Enema.

Lagenaria siceraria

+

+

+

+

+

+

+

+

+

YS,L

+

Gourds, ladles, floats, pipes, musical intrument, house ornamentals. Pulp: purgative, cause vomiting, skin cooling, increase urine, and its frequency, antibilious. Fruit syrup: chest pain, pimples, rheumatism mixtures. Leaves: baldness. seeds: intestinal worms, reduce body fluids; oil: externally for headaches.

Luffa cylindrica

+

+

+

+

+

+

T

+

+

+

+

F,L

+

Mature fruit: bathing sponge, local doors, table mats. Young fruit: stimulating milk in mothers; stem sap: chest complaints. Fruit juice: increase urine, purgative, cause vomiting; seed oil: skin infections.

Manihot esculenta

+

+

+

+

+

+

L

+

+

+

Root tubers: staple food.

Phaseolus lunatus

+

+

+

+

+

+

+

F,S

+

Seed: fevers; roots: narcotic; whole plants: green manure.

Phaseolus trilobus

+

+

+

+

+

+

+

F,S,L

Phaseolus vulgaris

+

+

+

+

+

+

+

F,S,L

Portulaca oleracea

+

+

+

+

+

L

+

+

Pig food, soil green manure

Sechium edule

+

+

T

+

+

+

F

Mature tubers: food

Sesamum indicum

+

+

+

+

+

+

+

+

+

S

+

+

+

Used in paints, lubricants, drug carrier, livestock & poultry food, stem: fuel, manure; seed: stimulates lactation, mentral flow, treat coughs, aphrodisiac, burns (seed); kidney, and bladder infections, hair grow & kills hair lice.

Solanum aethiopicum

+

+

+

+

+

+

+

L

+

+

+

+

Solanum gilo

+

+

+

+

+

+

F

+

+

+

+

S. indicum subsp. distichum

+

T

+

+

+

+

F

+

Fruit: high blood pressure

Solanum nigrum

+

+

+

+

+

+

+

L

+

+

+

+

Wild & semi-wild

Tamarindus indica

+

+

+

+

+

+

+

T

+

+

Flo.L,S

+

Whole trees: fencing, ornamental, timber. Bark & wood ash: ink, Ripe fruits: cleane; starch & pectim used in industry; Pulp: hemorrhoids, diabetes, sore throat. Roots: respiratory illness, leprosy. Ash: digestive problems. Seed: dysentery, coughs, fevers & heart pains. Bark: asthma, sore throat, wounds, ulcers, boils. Leaves: bilharzia, hemorrhoids, snake-bites, antiseptic.

Tribulus cystoides

+

+

+

+

+

YS,L

+

+

Fruit: increase urine, tonic, aphrodisirac; Leaves: bladder stones, stomach cramps, tonic, laxative.

Tribulus longipetalus

+

+

+

+

+

YS.L

+

+

Tribulus terrestris

+

+

+

+

+

YS,L

+

+

Vigna unguiculata

+

+

+

+

+

+

+

S,L

+

+

+

+

Forage, green manure, mulch, a cover crop

Fe = iron; P = phosphorus; K = potassium; Ca = calcium; + = rich in, T = trace; N = Northern; E = Eastern;

C = Central; W = Western; S = Seed; L = Leaf; F = Fruits; Flo = Flower; YS = Young shoot.

Developed from FAO (1988); Goode (1989) and Rubaihayo (1994).

Age		Median weight (kg)	Energy (kcal)†	Protein (g)†	Vitamin A (µg)‡	Folic acid (µg)†	Iron (mg)†	Iodine (mg)§
Infants (months)
	3-6	7.0	700	13.0	350	25	14	40
	6-9	8.5	810	14.0	350	31	14	50
	9-12	9.5	950	14.0	350	34	14	50
Children (years)
	1-2	11.0	1150	13.5	400	36	8	70
	2.3	13.5	1350	15.5	400	46	9	70
	3.5	16.5	1550	17.5	400	54	9	90
Boys/girls
	5-7	20.5	1850/1750	21.0	400	68	9	90
	7-10	27.0	2100/1800	27.0	400	89	16	120

^† Values derived from Energy and protein requirements: report of a joint FAO/WHO/UNU expert consultation. WHO Technical Report Series 724. Geneva, 1985.

^‡ Values derived from Requirements of vitamin A, iron, folate and vitamin B₁₂: report of a joint FAO/WHO Expert Consultation. (In press)

^§ Values derived from Recommended Dietary allowances. Ninth rev. ed. U.S. National Academy of Sciences. Washington, DC, 1980.

Source: Traditional Food Plants. FAO 1988.

Age (years)		Median weight (kg)	Energy (kcal)†	Protein (g)†	Vitamin A(µg)‡	Folic acid (µg)‡	Iron (mg)‡	Iodine (mg)§
Males
	10-12	34.5	2200	34.0	500	102	16	150
	12-14	44.0	2400	43.0	600	170	24	150
	14-16	55.5	2650	52.0	600	170	24	150
	16-18	64.0	2850	56.0	600	200	15	150
	>18	70.0	3050	52.5	600	200	15	150