South Asia

National coconut breeding programme in India
Coconut breeding in Sri Lanka

National coconut breeding programme in India

M.J. Ratnambal and M.K. Nair
Senior Scientist and Director (Retd.), CPCRI, Kasaragod, Kerala, India

Introduction

Improvement of perennial crops in general and coconut in particular is very complicated and time consuming. The long juvenile period, the long interval between generations, heterozygous nature of the palm, the long period of experimentation needed to obtain results and the large area required are mainly responsible for the slow progress in coconut breeding work. In spite of these limitations, considerable progress has been made in India where organized coconut breeding work was started for the first time in the world in 1916. It was at the erstwhile Central Coconut Research Station, Kasaragod (now the Central Plantation Crops Research Institute - CPCRI) and Research Centres now under Kerala Agricultural University that several items of breeding work on the improvement of coconut palms were initiated.

The progress in the research on collecting, conservation and evaluation of coconut germplasm and in selection and hybridization for the improvement of the palm in different centres in India is briefly reviewed herein.

Hectarage and production

The area and production of coconut in India was only 0.622 million ha and 3582 million nuts in 1950. The area increased to 1.669 million ha during 1994-95 and production reached 12 196 million nuts, an increase of 168.3% and 240.5%, respectively during the last four decades. The coconut is mostly grown in the States of Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh. Kerala leads in terms of area (54%) and production (43.5%) with 0.901 million ha and 5303.3 million nuts followed by Tamil Nadu (0.27 million ha, 3311.4 million nuts) and Karnataka (0.26 million ha, 1345.4 million nuts). While the national productivity is 7309 nuts/ha/year, the productivity is maximum in Andhra Pradesh with 13 642 nuts/ha followed by Tamil Nadu (12 139 nuts/ha), Kerala (5 888 nuts/ha) and Karnataka (5 179 nuts/ha) (Table 1).

In recent years, the coconut cultivation in the country is also being extended to Bihar, Madhya Pradesh and Northeastern region. About 98% of the total five million coconut holdings in the country are below two hectares. It is estimated that more than ten million people depend directly or indirectly on coconut culture and industry for their livelihood.

The local tall cultivars West Coast Tall (WCT), Tiptur Tall, East Coast Tall and Sakhiagopal Tall are even now extensively cultivated and are preferred under rainfed conditions. The total investment cost during the initial period of establishment is about Rs. 124 600/ha for the West Coast Tall under irrigated conditions with annual maintenance cost of Rs. 25 700. Under rainfed conditions, investment and annual maintenance costs amount to Rs. 109 800 and Rs. 21 400, respectively. For the hybrid, the initial investment cost is Rs. 95 400 and the annual maintenance cost is Rs. 25 700. The net income (excluding value for fixed cost) at current market price per ha per year for WCT under rainfed conditions is Rs. 25 850 and under irrigated condition, it is about Rs. 41 250. The hybrid under irrigated condition and ideal management will give a net income of Rs. 53 050/ha.

National germplasm collection - Present status and utilization

In 1924, India started the introduction of coconut germplasm from the Philippines, Malaysia, Fiji, Indonesia, Sri Lanka, Vietnam and other Southeast Asian countries. Germplasm exchange programme was further intensified in 1952. Surveys for collecting of indigenous germplasm were started in 1958. Twenty four (24) accessions (21 tails and 3 dwarfs) from six Pacific Ocean Islands were selected in 1981 based on random sampling (tails) and biased sampling (dwarf). They are being maintained at CPCRI World Coconut Germplasm Centre, Sipighat, Andamans. These collections include well-known cultivars such as Rennel Tall, Solomon Tall, Fiji Tall, Samoan Tall, Tahiti Tall, Rangiroa Tall, Yellow Dwarf, Orange Dwarf and Niu Leka Dwarf.

At present, the CPCRI, the national institute mandated to do coconut research, is maintaining 46 indigenous and 86 exotic (introduced) cultivars. The exotic collections from 22 countries of South America, Southeast Asia, Caribbean Islands, Indonesian Islands, Pacific Ocean Islands and African countries include 68 tails, 16 dwarfs, one semi-tall and one hybrid (Table 2).

The statewide collection of indigenous germplasm consists of 34 tails and 12 dwarfs (Table 2). Duplicates of some of these collections are also being maintained at State Agricultural University Centres under the All India Coordinated Research Project on Palms to assess their performance under different agroclimatic conditions (Andhara Pradesh - Ambajipet; Karnataka - Arsikere; Tamil Nadu - Aliyarnagar and Veppankulam; Orissa - Konark; Madhya Pradesh - Jagadulpur; Bihar - Jalalgarh; West Bengal -Mondouri; Maharashtra - Ratnagiri; and Assam - Kahikuchi). The germplasm accessions are being maintained in a live collection with an average number of 25 palms in 21 tails and in five dwarfs. Ten tall accessions have 50 or more palms and nine dwarfs have more than 30 palms. The strains are characterized based on geographical origin and phenotypic characters. Among the collections, 83 accessions are planted in replicated trials and the remaining without proper design. The accessions are evaluated based on vegetative characters (germination, number of leaves emitted, vertical growth), and agronomic and yield characters (flowering, number of bunches, number of nuts and copra per nut). However, the most sought out characters are productivity (copra per nut, copra per ha, oil per ha) and drought tolerance.

Coconut germplasm has been strengthened by a recent collection of 15 exotic accessions from three Indian Ocean Islands (6 from Mauritius, 4 from Madagascar and 5 from Seychelles) using embryo culture technique developed by Karun et al. (1993). A total of 1419 embryos of both tall and dwarf types were collected (Table 3). This was the first successful attempt of exotic germplasm collecting and transport using embryo culture techniques. Among the collections, Guelle Rose from Mauritius and Coco Gra from Seychelles which are equivalent to the Makapuno of the Philippines, are considered to be the most important germplasm.

The IPGRI descriptor list, which includes information on collecting, evaluation, maintenance and occurrences of disease, is being used for the documentation of the coconut germplasm.

Evaluation

The germplasm is being evaluated beginning at the nursery stage (number of days to germination, height, leaf length, leaf width, girth at collar and leaf showing first splitting). Juvenile stage evaluation includes leaf production, leaf length, increase in girth and other growth parameters recorded before flowering (5 to 6 years). Agronomic evaluation determines the duration of the male and the female phase, female flower distribution and length of peduncles, number of inflorescences, aborted bunches, mean number of female flowers, number of mature nuts and setting percentage. The nut characters include the analysis of data on fruit shape, nut shape (qualitative descriptors) and weight of fruit, nut and nut without water, meat and copra.

The most important evaluation is on the yield of the adult palm. Among the exotic cultivars, Fiji Tall, Fiji Longtongwan, Philippine Ordinary, Philippine Laguna and Strait Settlement Green were found to be superior to the local cultivar West Coast Tall, yielding over 30% more nuts and 80% more copra (Table 4). Among the indigenous cultivars, Kappadam, Andaman Ordinary, Laccadive Ordinary have higher yield potential than the local West Coast Tall.

Genetic erosion and future priorities of collecting

Since coconut belongs to the monotypic genus, the possibility of tapping the gene pools from related species is limited. Most of the exotic collections assembled through exchange programmes have a limited sample size. The root (wilt) disease is one of the major production constraints in Kerala and in view of its mycoplasma-like organism (MLO) etiology, the two strategies followed are: a) uprooting the diseased plants and replanting; and b) breeding for disease tolerance. In the former programme, there is an inbuilt risk of losing the valuable indigenous genepool. Hence, there is a need to identify disease-free desirable genotype and maintain them in conservation blocks.

In order to reach self sufficiency in edible oil in the country, massive area expansion programmes for oil palm have been initiated in recent years. It is expected that within the next 10 years, more than 400 000 ha of oil palm plantation will come into existence in the States of Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu and Kerala. Some of these areas are suitable for coconut cultivation. Further shifting of existing low yielding coconut plantations into oil palm becomes inevitable. Hence, there is a need to conserve the indigenous germplasm in the four major coconut growing states.

Surveys for collecting and conservation of indigenous cultivars in Orissa, West Bengal and Northeastern region will have to receive immediate attention. There is also a need to broaden the genetic base by collecting nut samples from Malanesia, Micronesia and Indian Ocean Islands, known to have wide variability. It is necessary to have a sizeable population (more than 60 palms per accession) of the collection and maintain them, preferably at more than one location. Maintenance of a duplicate germplasm collection would not only help in meaningful evaluation but also serve as a safeguard in the event of a wipe out due to disease or other disasters in one location or centre.

Types of coconut grown in the country

Tall. The tall palms, some referred as var. typica Nar., are the most commonly cultivated coconut in the world. Tall palms generally grow to a height of 25-30 m and have a long pre-bearing age of 6-10 years. They are normally cross-pollinated as there is usually no overlapping of male and female phases. Fruit is generally medium to large in size and the nuts mature within a period of 12 months. The copra content is usually over 150 g/nut and the oil content varies from 66 to 70%. West Coast Tall, East Coast Tall, Tiptur Tall, Laccadive Ordinary and Andaman Ordinary are some of the distinct tall types present in India.

Dwarf. Dwarf palms, sometime referred to as var. nana (Griff.) are characterized by their short stature. They are early bearing (3-4 years), easier to harvest and short-lived. They have thin trunks without swollen bases or "boles". Their fully developed fronds rarely exceed four metres. Though the dwarf palms yield heavily, they tend to exhibit irregular bearing. Dwarfs are identified mainly by the colour of their nuts. They are presumed to have originated from tall palms either through mutation (Menon and Pandalai 1958) or by inbreeding in tails (Swaminathan and Nambiar 1961). In India, the three important dwarfs found are Chowghat Green Dwarf and Chowghat Orange Dwarf, mainly described by the colour of their nuts and petiole, from Kerala and Gangabondam, a green dwarf from Andhra Pradesh. The copra content in dwarfs ranges from 90 to 120 g/nut and oil content is about 65%.

Intermediate types. In India, there are few other distinct tall types such as Laccadive Micro, Kappadam, Andaman Giant, Calangute, Nadora and Beaulim. Ramachandran et al. (1977) reported Ayiramkachi, an intermediate type between tall and dwarf found in Tamil Nadu.

Comparative performance of cultivars/hybrids

Based on preliminary evaluation and multi-location trials started under the All-India Coordinated Palm Improvement Project from 1972 onwards, the overall superior performance of Laccadive Ordinary (LO) in Research Centres located in Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Kerala and Maharashtra has been established. This cultivar has been selected and released by CPCRI in 1985 for commercial cultivation in the four southern states under the name 'Chandrakalpa'. Another cultivar, Banawali Green Round from Ratnagiri (Maharashtra), has been selected and released in 1987 by Konkan Krishi Vidya Peeth, Dapoli under the name 'Pratap'. The performance of these cultivars is shown in Table 5.

Based on the organoleptic test for tender nut water in 46 cultivars, 12 were selected for detailed analysis using biochemical parameters such as total sugar, amino acid, sodium and potassium contents. Chowghat Orange Dwarf was recommended for release as a tender nut variety in view of its superior water quality (Table 6).

The hybrid vigour in coconut was discovered in a cross between West Coast Tall and Chowghat Green Dwarf by Dr JS Patil in 1937. This important finding paved the way for successful breeding programmes in coconut not only in India but in other countries like the Philippines, Indonesia, Sri Lanka and Jamaica.

Until the middle of 1950s, the emphasis was on the production of tall × dwarf hybrids. More than 90 hybrid progenies using different combinations of tails and dwarfs like Chowghat Orange Dwarf (COD), Gangabondam (GB) and Chowghat Orange Dwarf (CGD) were evaluated over the years at the CPCRI and various centres under the All-India Coordinated Research Project on Palms. In view of their high yield performance, hybrids COD × WCT, LO × COD and WCT × COD were recommended for release in 1985. Subsequently, the Kerala Agricultural University (KAU) and Tamil Nadu Agricultural University (TNAU) evaluated and released seven more hybrids, namely: LO × GB, Andaman Ordinary × GB, WCT × GB, WCT × MYD, and WCT × SS Apricot by KAU, East Coast Tall (ECT) × CGD and ECT × MYD by the TNAU. Recently, the Andhra Pradesh Agricultural University also released a hybrid from a cross between ECT and GB (Table 7). The comparative performance of these hybrids indicated that in terms of nut production and copra content they were superior to the local tails. WCT yielded 80 nuts per palm while the hybrids produced 95 to 140 nuts per palm per year.

National replanting programme

The production target of 15 000 million nuts by 1996-97 is sought to be achieved by: a) taking up both long and short term programmes aimed at improving the production and productivity of the crop, and b) promoting technology development in product diversification and utilization. The major thrusts of the national programme are production and distribution of superior planting material, expansion of coconut area under traditional and non-traditional farms, integrated farming in coconut holding for productivity improvement, and replanting, particularly in the root (wilt) affected areas of eight southern districts of Kerala. The production of quality planting materials is needed for new planting and for replacing diseased palms.

During the 8th plan period (1992-97), a productivity improvement programme is proposed to be implemented in Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, Maharashtra, Pondicherry, Andaman and Nicobar Islands, Goa and Lakshadweep Islands. The main objective of the programme is to improve production and productivity of the crop through an integrated approach. The programme consists of felling and removing the disease affected palms, replanting with quality planting materials to maintain optimum planting density, improved management practices like fertilizer applications, adoption of plant protection measures and mixedcropping. In 1997, the total operational area under this programme is projected to be 136 800 ha at an estimated development cost of Rs. 334.5 million.

Considerable land suitable for coconut culture is available in both the traditional and non-traditional coconut growing regions in the country. During the period 1992-97, a physical target of 24 900 ha is proposed to cover Kerala, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, Orissa, Maharashtra, Goa, Tripura, Madhya Pradesh, Bihar, West Bengal, Assam, Nagaland, Gujarat, Manipur, Arunachal Pradesh, Andaman, Nicobar Islands and Pondicherry. A subsidy of Rs. 6000/ha will be provided to encourage area expansion in coconut.

Main productivity problems

While the production of coconut has increased by 58% during the last decade, there was only 20% increase in productivity as shown in Table 1. Technologies to increase the production are available. However, a breakthrough has not been achieved mainly due to problems such as root (wilt) disease of coconut and failure to effectively transfer improved technologies to the farmers. The long pre-bearing period and time lag between input and response are also major constraints because the farmers are reluctant to adopt the technologies effectively and wait for returns. About 98% of more than five million holdings in coconut are less than two hectares. Contrary to the assumption that small holdings have increased productivity because of the personalized attention, larger plantations under the corporate sector showed better productivity. Major productivity problems are:

Irrigation

In Kerala, the major coconut growing state in the country, the area under irrigation is only 2.8%. Coconut is consistently under prolonged period of moisture stress from January to May. It has been very clearly demonstrated in experimental plots that responses of coconut to summer irrigation were substantial and the yield maybe about four times more than those under rainfed conditions. Unirrigated crop usually have tapering stem, small crown and 6-10 leaves. Combined effect of irrigation and fertilization have proved conclusively that irrigation is the most important input to increase coconut production, particularly in Kerala. A comparison of the productivity of coconut under irrigated conditions in three major coconut producing states in India showed that Kerala has higher potential than Tamil Nadu or Karnataka in spite of the prevalence of the root (wilt) disease. Further, if the irrigation is improved, the yield could be substantially increased in all the coconut states.

Fertilizer application

Coconut is a heavy consumer of soil nutrients particularly nitrogen, potassium and chlorine. It is, therefore, essential that adequate supply of fertilizers is ensured for sustaining the productivity of the crop. The experiment at CPCRI has clearly indicated that the application of manure alone (500g N, 320g P₂O₅ and 100g K₂O/palm/year) increased the yield four times compared with the unfertilized control. Although a number of hybrids and cultivars have been popularized in recent years in order to boost the coconut production, there has been no practical attempt to work out their nutrition requirements. The current fertilizer recommendation remains the same for different varieties although regional based adjustments of fertilizer application have been suggested. Further, it was observed that the farmers apply fertilizer to the plantations only if adequate subsidy was provided.

Under-planting and replanting

No detailed study has been made in India on the optimum time for under-planting and replanting of coconut gardens. However, under-planting is a common practice in Kerala where coconut has been under cultivation for long. Very often, coconut seedlings are under-planted even before adult palms in the garden have ceased to give economic returns. This results to overcrowding with consequent yield decline of the adult palms and poor growth of under-planted seedlings. Replacing of the senile palms is a continuous process in coconut culture which calls for supply of elite planting materials with proven efficiency.

Planting material

The current estimated annual demand for coconut seedlings in the country is about 15 million. The elite planting materials produced were about one million hybrid seedlings from the nine hybrids released and about 2.2 million tall seedlings (Table 8). Thus, there is a wide gap between demand and supply. This situation is being exploited by private nurseries which supply very poor quality planting materials. It is, therefore, necessary to increase the production capability of the existing seedgardens and establish additional gardens in the major coconut growing states.

Root (wilt) disease

The yield decline due to root (wilt) disease has been estimated within the range of 13 to 74 nuts per palm depending upon the severity of the disease. A survey conducted during 1984 in Kerala indicated that the disease had affected 0.41 million ha (32%) in eight southern districts of the state. It caused an estimated annual loss of 968 million nuts in addition to the loss of a number of leaves, copra weight and oil content.

Mycoplasma etiology has been established and breeding for tolerance is in progress. The disease has been found to respond to management practices like irrigation, fertilizer application, leaf rot control using sequential spraying of fungicides, removal of affected seedlings in the prebearing stage, senile/uneconomic palms and palms in advanced stages of disease, and replanting with high yielding seedlings.

Breeding strategies

Breeding for tolerance to drought

Well-distributed rainfall or adequate irrigation ensure high productivity in coconut. However, in the northern part of Kerala, the entire Tamil Nadu and the Maidan part of Karnataka, the crop is growing under rainfed conditions with about 5-7 months of prolonged dry spell. The palms are periodically exposed to low rainfall or delayed onset of monsoon or both resulting in poor yield. The adverse effects of drought on coconut persist even for the subsequent 2-3 years. Under these circumstances, evolving a drought tolerant variety is of paramount importance. Rajagopal et al. (1990) standardized the techniques on screening coconut varieties for drought tolerance using epicuticular wax, stomatal frequency and leaf water potential. They identified WCT × WCT, Federated Malay States (FMS), Java Giant, Fiji, Andaman Giant and LO × COD as drought tolerant. Recently, some more tolerant varieties have been identified and they are all currently being utilized in breeding programmes to identify high yielding hybrids with drought tolerance.

Breeding for tolerance to root (wilt) diseases

The crop loss caused by root (wilt) disease has been indicated earlier and in view of their mycoplasmal etiology, effective chemical control measures are not available. Hence, the development of resistant/tolerant varieties to the root (wilt) disease is the only lasting solution. Screening of the available coconut germplasm starting from 1972 onwards failed to identify any disease tolerant accession. However, in areas where the disease was endemic, high yielding disease-free WCT palms were found. These palms were subjected to physiological and serological studies followed by electron microscopy to ensure that they were free from MLOs. Similarly, disease-free CGD plants were also identified in hot spot areas. These disease-free palms were utilized for producing WCT × CGD and CGD × WCT hybrids and WCT inter se and self-pollinated material. The screening of these progenies are in progress from 1989 onwards. Preliminary indications show that there is a possibility of obtaining disease tolerant cultivars.

The other breeding strategy includes production of large number of dwarf × tall and tall × dwarf and tall × tall hybrid combinations. The hybrid progenies are being evaluated for yield, oil content, nut water quality, etc.

Coconut breeding programme action for next ten years

The future breeding strategies in increasing the productivity in coconut are grouped as follows:

Prepotency

Prepotency in coconut has been adequately demonstrated by Harland (1957). It is now used as a criterion in identifying and multiplying large number of palms which could be directly used to improve the local tall and also as parents in the breeding programme.

Crosses involving wide genetic diversity

The present strategy is to produce hybrids between tails and dwarfs possessing wide variation from diverse geographical origins such as Rennel Tall × Indian Dwarfs and Indian Tails × Malayan Dwarfs.

Tall × tall crosses

The performance of tall × tall hybrids were not effectively evaluated in India but by judicious choice of parental lines, better tall × tall hybrids could be evolved.

Breeding for disease and drought tolerance

Breeding for tolerance to root (wilt) and drought has been initiated during the later half of 1980s. The work, however, needs to be intensified to evolve varieties tolerant to root (wilt) disease and stress.

Quality improvement

The oil content has a very narrow range in many accessions varying from 65 to 70 percent. However, cultivars like Laccadive Ordinary have oil content of up to 72%. Efforts have to be directed to improving the oil content of high yielding varieties. There is also a need to breed varieties for low saturated: unsaturated oil ratio in view of the dietary consciousness of the vegetable oil users.

Establishment of seedgardens to meet the demand

The deficit in quality planting materials is estimated to be around 12 to 13 million coconut seedlings annually. Seedgardens that can produce the recommended hybrids and sufficient quality planting materials shall be established and/or upgraded in various agro-climatic coconut growing regions.

Breeding for genotype for multiple cropping model

The multiple cropping model in coconut gardens is being enthusiastically adopted by coconut farmers in view of the increased income per unit area. Continued work on crops and cultivars suitable for various coconut-based farming systems will be the priority item in the next decade.

Suggestions for a collaborative breeding programme with other countries

None of the available germplasm accessions has been found to be tolerant to the root (wilt) disease. In view of this, there is a need to exchange germplasm between India and other coconut growing countries to enrich the existing germplasm with a view to identify accessions tolerant to the root (wilt) disease and other major diseases and pests. Simultaneously, there is also a need to have a collaborative programme for collecting of germplasm from South Asia, Southeast Asia and Indian Ocean Islands. The collaboration can be with IPGRI, Sri Lanka, Indonesia, the Philippines and also with the Pacific Ocean countries.

National institutions involved in coconut breeding

There are two major institutions involved in coconut breeding in the country: the Central Plantation Crops Research Institute (CPCRI) and the Kerala Agricultural University. These institutions are supported by the All India Coordinated Research Projects on Palms. The details are given in Table 9.

Funding agencies for coconut breeding programmes in the country

The Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR), New Delhi is the premiere funding agency for the coconut breeding in the country. The CPCRI, with a mandate for working on coconut improvement in the country, is fully financed by the ICAR. In addition, 16 coordinating centres under the All India Coordinated Research Project on Palms are also being financed to the extent of 75% by the ICAR. The remaining 25% of the funding is being met by the concerned State Agricultural Universities.

Conclusion

More than 75 years of breeding research on coconut conducted in India, particularly at the present Central Plantation Crops Research Institute, Kasaragod, has resulted in assembling and evaluating the largest germplasm accessions of coconut in the world where two high yielding varieties and nine hybrids have been evolved. In addition, a variety for tender coconut has also been released. The present thrust in coconut breeding is to evolve varieties resistant to root (wilt) disease and drought. Simultaneously, efforts are also being made to meet the requirements for elite planting material. An effective national replanting programme is being implemented at the Central Sector by the Coconut Development Board. The main problems seem to be the lack of varieties tolerant to the root (wilt) disease and ineffective management practices, particularly with regard to irrigation and fertilizer application. The target annual production of 20 000 million nuts by the end of the century is achievable, provided the policy makers and researchers are able to bridge the gap particularly in the field of planting material and scientific management of the plantations.

References

Harland, S.C. 1957. The improvement of the coconut palm by breeding and selection. Ceylon Coc. Res. Institute. Bull. 15p.

Karun, A., S. Shivashankar, K. K. Sajini and K. V. Saji. 1993. Field collection and in vitro germination of coconut embryos. J. Plantn. Crops. 21(Suppl):291-294.

Menon, K.P.V. and K.M. Pandalai. 1958. The coconut palm: A Monograph. Indian Central Coconut Committee, Ernakulam. 384p.

Rajagopal, V., K.V. Kasturibai and S.R. Voleti. 1990. Screening of coconut genotypes for drought tolerance. Oléagineux. 45(5):215-223.

Ramachandran, M., V.N. Muralidharan and K. Balasubramaniam. 1977. A note of the new coconut variety - Ayiramkachi. Indian Coconut J. (8):4-6

Swaminathan, M.S. and M.C. Nambiar. 1961. Cytology and origin of dwarf coconut palm. Nature. (192):85-86.

Table 1. Area, production and productivity of coconut in India (1994-1995)

States/union territories	Area ('000 ha)	Production (million nuts)	Productivity (nuts/ha)
Andhra Pradesh	86.6	1181.4	13642
Karnataka	259.8	1345.4	5179
Kerala	900.7	5303.3	5888
Tamil Nadu	272.8	3311.4	12139
Others	148.8	1054.8	-
INDIA (1991-1992)	1668.7	12196.3	7309

Table 2. Present coconut germplasm holdings of CPCRI

Place of collection	Tall	Semi Tall	Dwarf	Total	Remarks
Southeast Asia	16	1	3	20	* s.s. green
Central and South America, Atlantic Region	6	-	1	7
African Regions	4	1	2	7	* MAWA hybrid
Pacific Ocean Islands	39	-	6	45
Indian Ocean Islands	3	-	4	7
Total	68	2	16	86
Indigenous - 46 Accessions
Kerala	4	-	2	6
Tamil Nadu	4	-	5	9
Karnataka	1	-	1	2
Andhra Pradesh	4	-	1	5
Goa	3	-	-	3
Gujarat Orissa	14	-	1	24
West Bengal Andamans	110	-	1	111
Laccadives	2	-	1	3
Total	34	0	12	46

Table 3. Coconut germplasm collected from Indian Ocean Islands during April-May 1997

Country	Collector's No	Cultivar	No. of embryos collected
Mauritius	1	Pemba Orange Dwarf	134
	2	Pemba Green Dwarf	110
	3	Pemba Yellow Dwarf	30
	4	Pemba Red Tall	25
	5	Dupay's Tall	55
	6	Guelle Rose	51
Madagascar	7	Sambava Tall	143
	8	West African Tall	152
	9	Sambava Green Tall	107
	10	Comoros Tall	103
Seychelles	11	Coco Lerein	110
	12	Coco Lehavt	143
	13	Coco Blev Tall	51
	14	Coco Reisin	170
	15	Cocogra	35
		Total	1419

Table 4. Performance of promising coconut cultivars at CPCRI, Kasaragod

Cultivar	Mean yield of nuts per palm per year		Copra yield
	(17-20 years) Number	% over WCT	Per nut (g)	Palm/yr (kg)	% over WCT
Exotic
1. Fiji Tall	106	55.9	179	19.0	86.3
2. Fiji Longtongwan	104	52.9	210	21.8	113.7
3. Philippine Ordinary	108	58.8	198	21.4	109.8
4. Philippine Laguna	88	29.4	209	18.4	80.4
5. S.S. Green	108	58.8	189	20.4	100.0
Indigenous
1. Kappadam	90	32.4	299	26.9	163.7
2. Andaman Ordinary	94	38.2	169	15.9	113.7
3. Laccadive Ordinary	98	44.1	195	18.9	85.3
4. West Coast Tall	68	-	150	10.2	-

Table 5. Performance of released indigenous coconut cultivars

Cultivar	Mean yield nut/palm per year	% Increase over local tall	Copra yield		% Increase over local Tall
			Mean/nut (g)	Palm/year (kg)
1. Chandrakalpa (Laccadive Ordinary)	98	22.5	195	18.9	31.3
2. Pratap (Banawali Green Round)	151	88.8	160	22.7	57.6
3. Local Tall	80	-	180	14.4	-

Table 6. Biochemical parameters in tendernut water of Chowghat Orange Dwarf (COD)

Quantity of tender nut water (ml)	(g/100 ml)		Free amino acid (mg/100 ml)	K (ppm)	Na (ppm)
	Total sugar	Reducing sugar
350	7.0	4.7	1.8	2003	20.0

Table 7. Performance of released coconut hybrids

Cultivar	Mean yield nut/palm per year	Copra yield		Percent		State for which recommended
		Mean/nut (g)	Palm/yr (kg)	Per ha (t)	Oil content
1. Chandrasankara (COD×WCT)	116	215	25	4.4	68	Kerala, Karnataka
2. Kesasankara (WCT×COD)	108	187	21	3.5	68	Kerala, Karnataka
3. Chandralaksha (LO×COD)	109	195	21	3.7	69	Kerala, Karnataka
4. Lakshaganga (LO×GB)	108	195	21	3.7	70	Kerala
5. Anandaganga (AO×GB)	95	216	21	3.7	70	Kerala
6. Keraganga (WCT×GB)	100	201	21	3.5	69	Kerala
7. Kerasree (WCT×MYD)	100	201	20	3.4	69	Kerala
8. Kerasougbaghya (WCT×SS Apricot)	116	196	23	3.5	65	Kerala
9. VHC-1 (ECT×CGD)	98	135	13	2.3	70	Tamil Nadu
10. VHC-2 (ECT×MYD)	107	152	16	2.9	69	Tamil Nadu
11. ECT×GB	140	150	21	3.7	68	Andhra Pradesh
12. WCT	80	176	14	2.5	68	Control

Table 8. Production of planting materials (in 1992)

Agency	(in millions)
	Tall	Dwarf	T × D	D × T
1. Dept. of Agriculture, Kerala	1.26	-	0.090	0.01
2. C.S.F., Aralam	0.04	-	0.007	0.01
3. Dept. of Agriculture, Tamil Nadu	0.70	-	0.350	0.35
4. Dept. of Agriculture, Lakshadweep	0.06	-	0.050	0.05
5. CPCRI, Kerala	0.11	0.02	0.003	0.01
Total	2.17	0.02	0.500	0.43

Table 9. Names and addresses of the national institutions involved in coconut breeding

1 Central Plantation Crops Research Institute (Indian Council of Agricultural Research) Kudlu, P.O., Kasaragod 671 124, Kerala, India Director: Dr K. U. K. Nampoothiri 2 All India Coordinated Research Project on Palms i) Headquarters: Central Plantation Crops Research Inst., Kudlu PO, Kasaragod 671 124, Kerala, India ii) Centres: Tamil Nadu Rice Research Institute (Tamil Nadu Agricultural University), Aduthurai 612 101. Tanjore District, Tamil Nadu Officer-In-Charge: Dr M. Subramaniam Director (TRRI) Agricultural Research Station (Tamil Nadu Agricultural University), Aliyarnagar 642 101, Coimbatore Dist., Tamil Nadu Officer-In-Charge: Dr C. S. Sridharan Assoc. Prof. (Breed.) Agricultural Research Station (Andhra Pradesh Agricultural University), Ambajipeta 533 214, EAst Godavari Dist., Andhra Pradesh Officer-In-Charge: Dr R. Rajamannuar Entomologist & Head Agricultural Research Station (University of Agricultural Sciences, Bangalore), Arsikere 573 103, Karnataka Officer-In-Charge: Dr M. Hanumanthappa Assoc. Prof. (Agro.) Agricultural Research Station (University of Agricultural Sciences, Dharwad), Gangavathy 583 227, Raichur Dist., Karnataka Officer-In-Charge: Dr S.G. Patil Soil Scientist & Head Regional Research Sub-station (Rajendra Agricultural University, Bihar), Jalalgarh 854 327, Purnia Dist., Bihar Officer-In-Charge: Dr Rajendra Prasad Zonal Agricultural Research Station (Indira Gandhi Krishi Viswa Vidyalaya), Kumharawandfram, Jagadalpur 494 005, Madhya Pradesh Officer-In-Charge: Dr B. S. Chandrakar Horticultural Research Station (Assam Agricultural University), Kahikuchi, Guwahati 781 017, Assam Officer-In-Charge: Dr N.K. Mohan Chief Scientist Coconut Research Station (Orissa University of Agriculture and Technology), Konark 752 011, Puri Dist., Orissa Officer-In-Charge: Dr D. K. Dash Asst. Professor (Breeding) Department of Horticulture (Bidhan Chandra Krishi Viswa Vidyalaya), Modouri, Kalyani 741 235, West Bengal Officer-In-Charge: Dr J. K. Nove Agricultural Research Sub-station (Konkan Krishi Vidyapeeth), Mulde 416 520, Kudal Taluk, Sindhudurg Dist., Venguria, Maharasthra Officer-In-Charge: Dr. R.T. Gunjate Assoc. Dir. of Research Regional Coconut Research Station (Konkan Krishi Vidyapeeth), Bhatya, Ratnagiri 425 612, Maharahtra Officer-In-Charge: Dr A. R. Karnik Coconut Research Station (Tamil Nadu Agricultural University), Veppankulam 614 906, Tanjavur Dist., Tamil Nadu Officer-In-Charge: Dr S. Siridharan Prof. & Head Agricultural Research Station (Andhra Pradesh Agricultural University), Vijayarai 534 475, West Godavary Dist., Andhra Pradesh Officer-In-Charge: Dr P. Krishna Prasad Scientist-in-charge Kerala Agricultural University, Vellanikkara 680 654, Trichur, Kerala Officer-in-Charge Dr K. N. Shyamasundaran Nair Vice-Chancellor

Coconut breeding in Sri Lanka

Rohan Renick Peries
Head, Breeding and Genetics, CRI, Lunuwila, Sri Lanka

Introduction

Coconut is the most extensively grown plantation crop in Sri Lanka covering approximately 416 000 ha (CDA 1992) out of a total land area of about 6.5 million ha. This area is geographically demarcated in the form of a triangle bordering the west coast and is referred to as the coconut triangle. The coconut bearing area was approximately 362 000 ha as of 1992. The total coconuts produced during the period 1985 to 1992 has varied between 3000 million nuts (1986) and 1900 million nuts (1988). Nearly 80% of total production was locally consumed while exports of copra and oil were about 20% of the production (Table 1).

A coconut breeding programme has been in operation since the inception of the Coconut Research Institute (CRI) of Sri Lanka in 1928. Being a predominantly cross-pollinating crop with a long generation interval, and in the absence of a proven method of vegetative propagation, mass selection and hybridization have been the major tools used in coconut breeding. The needs of the local coconut industry necessitated selection to be mainly directed towards nut production with high copra content.

In the light of changing weather conditions, the breeding programme was reviewed (Liyanage 1982) and new directions adopted to face the challenges of the 21st century. The objectives of the current coconut breeding programme can be summarized as production of improved planting material for the different agroecological regions of the country. The main research projects carried out to achieve this goal are as follows:

a) Evaluation of improved cultivars in different agroecological regions;

b) Identification of palms for the breeding programme related to crop × weather (G × E) interaction studies in the seedgardens;

c) Evaluation of progenies from different crosses under high- and low-input levels to suit farmer conditions, and

d) Collecting, conservation and utilization of coconut genetic resources to:

· arrest genetic erosion and conserve valuable genes;
· identify variation which has so far not been explored for utilization; and
· select plant material resistant to drought for use in the breeding programme.

The cultivars indigenous to Sri Lanka have been classified into three main varietal groups: Typica (tall), Nana (dwarf) and Aurantiaca (king coconut). The classification was based mainly on the breeding habit of the palm. Table 2 shows these varieties and the different forms of coconut classified under each variety, along with a recent addition to this classification (Peries 1991). Most of the general features of tall and dwarf types were similar to those reported from other coconut growing countries. However, a serious constraint has been the limited quantity of copra produced by the Sri Lanka Tall (SLT) variety. The contrasting features of the tall and dwarf varieties are shown in Table 3.

National replanting programme

A national replanting programme (NRP) has been in operation in the country for the last four decades. Since 1962, small quantities of improved seed material have been issued for the NRP to supplement the total seed requirement. Most of these planting material were produced from a pool of about 50 000 mother palms selected within the coconut triangle. From about 1% of improved cultivars issued to the NRP in 1962, it increased up to 25% in 1990. The issued improved cultivars to the NRP during the period 1981-90 are summarized in Table 4. With the setting up of two other seedgardens in 1984 and 1987, it is expected that the total seed requirement for the NRP would be met by seedgardens alone by 1998.

National replanting targets were re-examined in the mid-80s. It was then agreed that about 2% of the area under coconut should be replanted annually (Liyanage 1982). However, as a result of experimental data indicating the low adaptability of the improved cultivars in some agro-ecologies sustaining coconut, it will be necessary to continue the plus palm (mother palm) programme, parallel to the production of improved cultivars. The ecobank concept will be accommodated within this system, where ecology adapted material, conserved in situ, would be used as a source of seed material in specific agroecologies.

Mother palm seed selection improvement

Currently, up to 70% of the seed requirement of the national replanting programme is supplied from selected seed palms (plus palms). Since the reassessment of replanting targets in 1982, several improvements on seed palm selection scheme were made which resulted in the re-selection of the entire set of existing mother palms. Wickramaratne et. al. (1987) suggested further improvements, whereby seed selection based on size and shape of seednuts was done away with. Some of the traditionally used criteria were recently found to be inapplicable, particularly in the light of changing weather patterns. The influence of environment on copra weight of selected palms was found to be greater than the genetic effect. The site to site variability in yields, both between years and within the year, was so high that a single set of selection criteria could not be used for palm selection over the entire coconut triangle. Beginning from 1993, selection indices are being developed for each estate, based on long term weather and crop data. The yield distribution pattern over the different times of the year (Abeywardena 1971) used in developing the selection criteria has thus been replaced by this system (Peries 1994; unpublished data). The progress made in this respect has been satisfactory.

Germplasm conservation

Present status

Since 1984, a systematic germplasm conservation programme has been in operation in Sri Lanka. What was available prior to this time was merely a breeder's collection which consisted of a dwarf palm block planted in 1940, a representative varietal collection planted in 1962, and the pool of palms at the isolated seedgarden (ISG) which was the most promising of the national resources.

The systematic conservation, launched since 1984, had two objectives:

1. conserving the existing biodiversity in all its features; carried out through random and biased sampling of specific populations; and

2. collecting and conservation of germplasm showing drought tolerance, through biased sampling.

Utilization

Since the materials have been only recently collected and conserved, they are not yet ready for utilization. The original field genebank is only eight years, and just about to flower. The population characteristics of the parents of these materials have been documented to serve as guide in breeding programmes.

Genetic erosion

There are no actual figures of the extent of genetic erosion in coconut. However, a rough estimate based on agricultural census indicated a loss of approximately 10% of the planted area per annum. Much of the loss occurred in the main coconut growing districts, mainly due to property development, associated with rapid urbanization. The establishment of investment promotion zones within the coconut triangle resulted in the disappearance of a large number of coconut palms.

Natural disasters such as cyclones, although not very frequent, also contributed to genetic erosion. The last major cyclone in the eastern province in 1978, led to the destruction of two million coconut palms. The prolonged drought, experienced in the southern part of the country in 1987, led to the loss of 200 000 palms. Currently, sea erosion is a major factor contributing to genetic erosion. Rising sea levels associated with global warming will, before the turn of the century, destroy a large extent of coconut land along the coastal belt of the country. In this respect, it is reported that several atoll islands in the Maldives will also be completely submerged as a result of this phenomenon. Hence, conservation of coconut germplasm resources along the coastal area should be given very high priority.

Priorities of future collecting

The current collecting and conservation programme will be continued, until such time representative samples of all useful populations are conserved ex situ. Certain gaps in collection need to be filled. Certain cultivars (or ecotypes), earlier identified within the country as indigenous, have now become almost extinct. Hence, search for such materials continues in areas in which they were originally identified.

A more recent thrust has been to select populations which are physiologically adapted in specific ecological zones. The existence of such adaptation in coconut has been reported (Foale 1991). Varieties or cultivars, which have thrived in certain agroecological regions, tend to show better adaptation to similar environment. In replanting programmes, they have been shown to be better suited for planting in their traditional ecological habitat compared to improved or other material introduced from elsewhere. Related to this, the setting up of germplasm repositories or ecobanks has commenced to conserve adapted material in situ for future use. This will be a major thrust in the near future.

Constraints to productivity

The coconut industry currently faces several constraints to achieving high productivity. One major drawback is the wide gap between the production potential of the SLT variety and the actual yield achieved as a result of the wide fluctuations in weather conditions. Within the elite palms available for breeding, there were those capable of producing 200 to 250 nuts per year under favorable weather conditions. Some of these material produced less than 20 nuts per year under unfavorable weather. This fluctuation was a major hindrance to sustainability of production. The long term breeding strategy to overcome this problem was to screen and identify palms with stable yield despite weather fluctuations. This programme, initiated in 1982 (Wickramaratne 1982), has led to the identification of an elite set of palms (Ambakelle special) which are currently being used in the breeding programme.

Another major constraint is the unavailability of exotic germplasm. Sri Lanka is fortunate to be free of any disease of unknown etiology. Quarantine authorities are, therefore, very careful not to introduce any material likely to transmit disease-carrying organisms. Hence, a complete ban on coconut germplasm import is in force. However, with time, it could change with the FAO/IPGRI guidelines on the safe movement of coconut germplasm being put into operation. With the current SLT variety, the maximum copra weight obtained on a plantation scale is around 230 g/nut. Compared to the varieties available elsewhere in the world, this is quite low. However, the current quarantine restrictions deny the local coconut breeders access to foreign germplasm.

Management constraints to productivity include the low fertilizer use by the smallholder. The current breeding programme seeks to define suitable varieties/cultivars for both high and low input production systems. Several progeny trials, initiated in this respect since 1986, have given useful results. Germplasm selection for coconut-based farming systems was also given priority to increase the income of the coconut smallholders through a more sustained level of production.

On-farm productivity

At the national level, coconut yields have been static, at around 6000 nuts/ha/year, although yields fluctuate because of erratic rainfall distribution. In order to assess the current and potential productivity of different farming systems involving coconut, it is necessary to consider the changing rainfall patterns in the major coconut growing areas. Table 6 shows the total rainfall, the number of drought months for the period 1984-93 and the total number of rainy days in the coconut triangle. These values correlated with the yield fluctuations among years shown in Table 1.

Presently, on-farm productivity is highly variable. This is mainly due to the level of management of the different holdings. More than 76% of the total coconut production in Sri Lanka are small-holdings of less than eight hectares. The area under different sizes of holding is given in Table 7. The majority of smallholdings used little or no inorganic fertilizer, except when provided under the fertilizer subsidy scheme. This subsidy scheme, however, ceased to operate since 1992.

On the other hand, the estate plantation sector yields remain at a higher level, with intensive use of fertilizer.

Net income from coconut

Income from coconut holdings depend on yield per unit area and net sales average (NSA), and cost of production (COP) or level of inputs.

At the national level, the net income per hectare can be estimated as the product of yield and net sales average (NSA) minus COP. At the current prices, (NSA = Rs. 4000/1000 nuts), and yield at 6 000 nuts/ha, with COP of Rs 2000/1000 nuts/the net income would be Rs. 12 000/ha/year (US$250).

However, the technology for better yields is available in Sri Lanka from well-managed plantations. The potential yield is higher in seedgardens than what is traditionally achieved on a sustained basis. Table 8 shows the yield pattern of Sri Lanka Tall parent palms in seedgarden at Ambakelle over the period 1985-93. Based on the value of nuts per palm and an average of 160 palms per hectare, the highest yield achieved was 22 155 nuts/ha in 1985. At 220 g of copra per nut, this was equivalent to 4.8 t copra/ha. However, there were wide fluctuations in yield between years because of rapid changing rainfall pattern.

Hence, the current thrust is to improve the quality of the present materials in such gardens in terms of yield stability, i.e. number and weight of nuts.

Breeding strategies

Considering the problems of the local coconut industry, specially the effect of drought on yield, selection of mother palms for stable yield is a must. The palm that produced 230 g of copra under favorable weather may drop its yield down to 80 g per nut under severe soil water deficit. This has been observed in seedgarden at Ambakelle in 1991, when the poorest yields in the last eight years were recorded (Table 8). To overcome this problem, a breeding programme was initiated in 1991 involving selection of individual palm and carrying out combination crosses. The resulting progenies were reintroduced into the seedgarden. The parents of the dwarf × tall hybrid (CRIC 65) are also currently being screened for drought tolerance, with a view to improving the hybrid in its ability to withstand the adverse effects of prolonged drought periods. The poor acceptance of hybrids was attributed to their susceptibility to water deficit, an aspect which has not been given much consideration in the past.

Improved cultivars

Selection of palms for high copra yield and the evaluation of their progenies led to the identification of 'pre-potent' palms. The open pollinated progenies of these palms were found to be capable of producing 30% to 40% more copra than the mean yield of their parent population. The progeny trials which led to their identification were carried out since 1934 at Marandawila and since 1948 at Walpita. The pollen of pre-potent palms were initially used in the production of tall × tall (CRIC 60) and dwarf × tall (CRIC 65) hybrids through controlled hand pollination. However, hand pollination was a tedious process and since 1955, the Isolated Seedgarden (ISG) technique was adopted for assisted natural pollination for mass production of hybrids. The contrasting features of the improved cultivars, in comparison to the Sri Lanka Tall are shown in Table 9.

Comparative performance of cultivars

Organized multilocation evaluation trials for selected cultivars commenced in 1984. Along with the SLT variety (progeny from 'plus palms'), four other cultivars, namely, tall × tall (CRIC 60); green dwarf × tall (CRIC 65); yellow dwarf × tall and Moorock Tall (an accession which had undergone at least three generations of selection for high copra weight), were tested in five locations with varying soil and rainfall conditions. The first three trials were set up in 1984. They were managed under the general guidelines of the CRI, with no extra inputs. In all the three sites, the hybrid CRIC 65 proved to be superior to the tall cultivars with respect to leaf production, flowering and fruiting. Table 10 summarizes the leaf production and flowering data at 60 months, the nut yield during 1990-93 and copra production during the 8th (1992) and 9th (1993) year of production in Bandirippuwa and Thammenna.

At the main CRI station at Bandirippuwa, the soil is sandy loam, shallow and the main root system is confined to about two meters of soil depth. In contrast, Thammenna has a deep latosol with a larger capacity for water storage allowing the root system to extend below 3.5 meters during prolonged rain-free periods. Rainfall data for the two sites from 1991-93 are shown in Table 11.

The 5th year data showed that the hybrids DG × T and DY × T were superior in flowering compared to the tall cultivars. By 1992, both sites evaluated had achieved maximum flowering in all cultivars. The most important phenomenon was the response of cultivars to soil water deficit. In Bandirippuwa, despite a high total rainfall (2053 mm) in 1992 compared to 1991 (1676 mm), a relative poor rainfall distribution occurred, particularly during the January to April period. The adverse effect of this is shown in nut and copra yield of 1993 (Table 10). All cultivars responded similarly to water deficit.

In Thammenna, which is located in a sub-optimal area for coconut, total rainfall in all three years under consideration was lower, with January to March of 1992 receiving no rainfall at all. Nevertheless, the cultivars tested survived because palms were able to extract deep soil water to sustain their growth. The yield in 1993 was, therefore, not different to that obtained in 1992.

The multilocation trials have confirmed the superiority of the hybrids green dwarf × tall and yellow dwarf × tall under conditions where prolonged drought periods do not occur frequently, or where, the soil type (deep soil) is able to provide the water requirement of the palms (Jayasekera et al. 1993). There was no difference in the depth of rooting amongst the five cultivars at the two sites reported. Another important observation with practical implication was that the improved Tall × Tall (CRIC 60) material did not show a marked superiority in yield over the ordinary tall (plus palm tall) across the different agroecologies. This was particularly evident in the more sub-optimal agroecologies. All cultivars had a similar level of fertilizer input and other cultural operations. This indicates the potential of the SLT variety for adaptation to a range of agroecological conditions which is now being further developed under the ecobank conservation concept. The information from the multilocation trials will be used in the near future for site-specific recommendations on coconut culture. The different cultivars tested would also be useful entries in the regional multilocation trial project of COGENT.

Coconut breeding action plan and expected output in the next ten years

The current research programme, through the ongoing progeny trials, aims to produce adapted cultivars to the different agroecological regions under both low and high input production systems. In the three regions (i.e. wet, intermediate and dry), as well as in areas intermediate to them, low input, small-scale farming systems predominate. Indigenous varieties of coconut found to be ecologically adapted through the germplasm conservation programme will play an important role in the future. Nine accessions identified recently are being systematically evaluated in the intermediate rainfall zone. Five open-pollinated progenies, each from 15 randomly selected parents, are being grown following a fully randomized design.

Since indigenous germplasm has a very narrow genetic base, identification of variation has been a major problem. Study of isoenzymes in indigenous germplasm to assess genetic diversity has just commenced. However, it would appear that some collaboration with the other coconut growing countries would be necessary, if success is to be achieved in this exercise. All individual institutions working on similar techniques should pool their resources and work together if positive results are to be achieved.

Research collaboration

Immediate research collaboration is called for in the following areas:

a) Exchange of germplasm between countries for use in local breeding programme If strict quarantine regulations are imposed, exchange of germplasm (as embryos or pollen) should not be a major problem. An international effort should be made to promote it. This has been done in the past. Third country quarantine (screening) is also a possibility. COGENT/IPGRI could recommend to its member countries the procedures to be adopted elaborating the benefits from such an exercise.

b) Development of isoenzyme/molecular based techniques

As already indicated, efforts by individual countries would be less effective than a collaborated effort. The existing variation within certain population is often very small, e.g. for yield characters, and conventional techniques may fail to identify such a diversity. However, certain genotypes in the same population may carry the trait for beneficial characters such as drought tolerance which may be identified only through a sophisticated technique such as isoenzyme/RFLP analysis. The technique will have greater application in countries dealing with a limited gene pool.

c) Multilocation (cultivars) evaluation trials

Promising accessions/hybrids for use in an international multilocation trial project have been identified. These could be made available to internationally coordinated trials to ascertain their suitability under a range of soil and other environmental factors, including high- and low-input agroecologies.

a) Free exchange of germplasm only for research purposes, or for establishing genebanks or multilocation trials.

b) If a multilocation trial is located within Sri Lanka, the cost of maintenance of such trial may be absorbed into the CRI budget.

c) Existing laboratory facilities in breeding/tissue culture would be open to COGENT member countries for training and/or other collaborative activities, subject to the approval of the Ministry of Plantation Industries, in respect to specific requests.

The coconut breeding programme of Sri Lanka is almost completely funded by the Coconut Research Institute of Sri Lanka. The CRI functions as a semi-government corporation and is fully funded by a Government grant. All breeding research programmes have been funded by this limited grant. In 1994, a small grant of Rs. 500 000 (US$ 10 000) over a three-year period has been made available through the World Bank-funded Council for Agricultural Research Policy (CARP) for a project titled, "Collection of coconut germplasm for physiological adaptation and their characterization using quantitative traits and biological markers". Initially, however, the allocated money will be used basically for equipment and the development of a technique for isoenzyme analysis. In terms of human resources development in coconut breeding, the past and present support of the following organizations are acknowledged:

a) Australian International Development Assistance Bureau (AIDAB)
b) Council for Agricultural Research Policy (World Bank)
c) International Plant Genetic Resources Institute (IPGRI) d) The British Council

The current coconut breeding programme is giving priority to identifying and conserving the threatened germplasm diversity. With a view to catering to the small farmers who are responsible for 75% of the coconut produced in the country, the coconut breeding programme envisages to increase the efficiency of the low-input coconut agroecology through conservation and utilization of biodiversity. With global changes in weather patterns and the associated threat to the existing diversity, an international effort is certainly called for to give a hand to the less fortunate developing countries, where almost all coconut is grown.

References

Abeywardena, V. 1971. Yield variations in coconut. Ceylon Coconut Q. (22): 97-103.

CDA. 1992. Sri Lanka coconut statistics. Coconut Development Authority.

Foale, M.A. 1991. Coconut genetic diversity: Present knowledge and future research needs. Pp. 46-53 in Proceedings of the IBPGR Workshop on Coconut Genetic Resources, 8-11 October 1991, Cipanas, Indonesia. IPGRI, Rome.

Jayasekera, K.S., W.M.P.B. Wahala, C. Jayasekera and R.R.A. Peries. 1993. Water use in coconut (Cocos Nucifera L.). P. 120 in Proceedings of the Annual Sessions of the Sri Lanka Association for the Advancement of Science (SLAAS), Peradeniya.

Liyanage, D.V. 1982. Improvement of coconut seednut and seedling selection. Report number 1 of the consultant in Breeding: Coconut Development Authority.

Peries, R.R.A. 1991. Report of the Genetics and Plant Breeding Division. Pp. 40-86 in Report for 1991, Coconut Research Board.

Wickramaratne, M.R.T. 1982. Report of the Genetics and Plant Breeding Division. Pp. 48-81 in Report for 1982, Coconut Research Board.

Wickramaratne, M.R.T., R. Coe and S. Fernando. 1987. Evaluation of criteria for selection of seed coconut (Cocos nucifera L.). Cocos (5): 01-07.

Table 1. Coconut production, consumption and export of kernel products during the period 1985-92

Year	Total coconut production	Domestic consumption	Percentage of export production
1985	2959	2027	31.5
1986	3039	1877	38.2
1987	2292	1731	24.5
1988	1937	1701	12.2
1989	2484	1896	23.7
1990	2532	2018	20.3
1991	2184	1795	17.8
1992	2296	1859	19.0

Table 2. Varieties and forms of coconut in Sri Lanka

Variety	Breeding habit	Forms
Typica (tall)	Out-breeding	typica rathi
		typical green
		Bodiri
		Ran thembili
		Gon thembili
		Navasi
		Pora pol
		Kamandala
		Dikiri pol
Nana (dwarf)	In-breeding	Pumilla (green D)
(Kundira)		Eburnea (yellow D)
		Regia (red D)
		Braun (brown D)1
Aurantiaca	In-breeding	Thembili
(King Coconut)		Navasi thembili

¹ Peries (1991)

Typica (tall)	Nana (dwarf)
a) grows tall (about 60')	palms with short stature (30' - 40')
b) produce a bole	no bole formation
c) 6-8 years for initial flowering	flowers in 3-4 years
d) long economic life (60-80 years)	short (about 40 years)
e) cross-pollinating	self pollinating
f) continuous bearers	seasonal bearers
g) average of 40 nuts/palm and 200 g copra/nut	nut number large (80-100) but low in copra (80-100 g, also low quality copra)
h) suited to a range of climatic conditions	highly sensitive to changes in weather
i) high resistance to pests and diseases	low resistance

Table 4. Total number of seedlings issued to the NRP between 1981 and 1990

Year	Ordinary Tall	T × T (CRIC 60)	D × T (CRIC 65)	Total	% Improved material
1981	3 781 145	-	-	3 781 145	-
1982	2 274 272	-	-	2 274 272	-
1983	1 312 831	155 156	54 920	1 522 907	13.6
1984	1 356 693	97 026	63 028	1 516 747	10.2
1985	1 744 943	191 426	28 494	1 964 863	10.0
1986	1 058 706	377 477	58 568	1 494 751	28.0
1987	842 120	379 983	26 801	1 248 904	27.6
1988	523 141	172 433	24 065	719 639	26.5
1989	980 668	254 959	23 103	1 258 730	18.5
1990	860 582	292 495	30 651	1 183 728	22.7

Table 5. Current status of the existing germplasm collection in Sri Lanka

Accession	Size of population/location and date of planting
	B/E		PRS
1. Moorock	84	(04/88)	82	(11/89)
2. Palugaswewa	60	(10/89)	85	(11/89)
3. Pitiyakande	86	(04/88)	85	(04/89)
4. Clovie	85	(10/89)	85	(04/90)
5. Namalwatta	79	(11/92)	95	(04/90)
6. St. Annes			85	(05/90)
7. Margaret			85	(05/90)
8. Kasagala			80	(12/92)
9. Debarayaya	80	(10/89)	81+6	(12/92)
10. Kundasale			81+7	(05/92)
11. Akuressa	84	(06/92)	89	(06/91)
12. Ambakelle special	78	(10/89)	91	(07/91)
13. Melsirupura			91	(11/92)
14. Mangala Eliya			86	(11/92)
15. Goyambokka			90	(11/92)
16. Camaroon Red dwarf			86	(11/92)
17. Goluwapokuna			90	(11/92)
18. Keenakelle			86	(05/93)
19. Dwarf brown			89	(05/93)
20. Maliboda			87	(05/93)
21. Horakelle			83	(05/93)
22. Walahapitiya			85	(10/93)
23. Wellawa	84	(04/88)	79	(10/93)
24. Ambakelle tall	86	(04/88)

B/E: Bandirippuwa estate
PRS: Porthukulama Research Station

Source: Department of Meteorology, Colombo Sri Lanka

Source: CDA, 1992