2. Plant Diversity in the Indian Gene Centre - R.K. Arora

Introduction
Antiquity of Indian agriculture
Indian subcontinent as gene centre
Diversity in other economic plants
Summary
References
Appendix I (a). Crops and areas where rich diversity in landraces and primitive cultivars occurs (Mehra and Arora, 1982; with additions by the author)
Appendix I (b). Rice varieties from Kerala with useful genes (Khoshoo, 1986)
Appendix II (a). Distribution of important wild relatives and related types in different phyto-geographical zones (Arora and Nayar, 1984)
Appendix II (b). Wild relatives and related endemic and/or rare species including endemic cultigens (Arora and Nayar, 1984)

Introduction

India is located between 8° - 38°N and 68° - 97°.5' E and exhibits extreme variation in altitude - from sea level to heights above vegetational limits in the Himalayas (ca 4500 m), and climate - from monsoon tropical in south to temperate and alpine in the north-western Himalayas and extremely arid to semi-arid in the north-western plains. It is floristically extremely rich with about 33 percent of its botanical wealth (over 15,000 species of higher plants) being endemic. There are about 141 endemic genera distributed over 47 families (Nayar, 1980). Further, of the 4,900 endemic species, larger percentage is localised in the Himalayas (about 2,532 species) than in other regions, namely, the peninsular tract (1,788 species), and the Andaman and Nicobar Islands (185 species). It is also estimated that floristic richness is maximum in the north-eastern region, which holds about 50 percent of India's total species diversity, i.e., more than 7,000 species, and is considered as the cradle of flowering plants. Of 990 species of orchids, 700 species occur in this region (Nayar, 1989). This, thus, makes the Indian region botanically unique and interesting.

On the basis of distribution of flora, the Indian subcontinent has been divided into 8 to 10 regions. The sub-regions suggested by Chatterjee (1939) are: (1) Western Himalayas, (2) Eastern Himalayas, (3) Central Himalayas, (4) Assam, (5) Gangetic plain, (6) Indus plain, (7) Deccan, and (8) Malabar. Based on physiographic, climatic and cultural features, the ICAR recognised 8 agro-climatic regions (Murthy and Pandey, 1978), while recently, further micro-climatic considerations pin-point to 21 such regions (Sehgal et al., 1990). Also, the Planning Commission has demarcated the country into 15 agro-climatic zones (Sehgal et al., 1990). However, in the present account, broadly 8 regions have been recognised which more or less superimpose over the phyto-geographical regions of Chatterjee (1939). These plant/crop diversity regions are shown in Fig. 1, while Fig. 2 exhibits the zones proposed by the Planning Commission. Table 1 broadly lists these regions based on above considerations as rearranged by the author.

Fig. 1. The eight agro-ecological regions of India. These broadly follow the phyto-geographical regions of Chatterjee (1939). Broken lines in regions 6 and 7 mark phyto-geographical boundaries, which are distinct from the agro-ecological boundaries (refer Fig. 4)

Fig. 2. Agro-climatic zones of India as recognised by the Planning Commission (Sehgal et al., 1990)

Antiquity of Indian agriculture

The excavation and dating of some of the earliest agricultural settlements provide important clues towards the beginning/growing of crop plants. The Harappan culture has been extensively studied and is dated between 2300 and 1750 B.C., but since there is extensive evidence of both an advanced agriculture and a sophisticated textile craft, the Harappan evidently does not represent the beginnings of Indian agriculture. At Kalibangan in Rajasthan, a pre-Harappan ploughed field revealed the same pattern as that practised in present day mixed cropping in the rabi (winter) season. Thus, the earliest agriculture so far excavated in India was one in which cultivation practices which persist to this day had already been established (Hutchinson, 1974).

Table 1. Phyto-geographical, agro-climatic and/or agro-ecological regions of India (rearranged by the author; indicated in Figs. 1 & 2)

Phyto-geographical regions (Chatterjee, 1939)	Agro-climatic regions-Planning Commission (Sehgal et al., 1990)	Agro-ecological regions (Murthy and Pandey, 1978)	Agro-ecological regions (Sehgal et al., 1990)	Major plant/crop diversity regions (Present author)
Western Himalayas	Western Himalayan region	Humid western Himalayan region	: Western Himalayas-cold arid region and Western humid region	Western Himalayas
Eastern Himalayas	Eastern Himalayan region	Humid eastern Himalayan region	: Eastern Himalayas-humid region	Eastern Himalayas
Central Himalayas	Part of above	-	-	-
Assam	Part of above	Humid Bengal-Assam basin	: Assam and Bengal, North-eastern hills	North-eastern region
Gangetic Plain	Lower, Middle, Upper & Trans-Gangetic plains	Sub-humid Sutlej-Ganga alluvial plains	: Northern plains, Central highlands	Gangetic plains (and northern part of central region)
Indus Plains	Gujarat plains and hill region	Western Arid plains	: Western plains and Kutch peninsula, Kathiawar peninsula	Indus plains, western Arid plains
Deccan	Eastern plateau and hill region, Central plateau and hill region	Sub-humid eastern/southern uplands and Central highlands	: Deccan plateau and Eastern Ghats, Chotanagpur plateau, East coast region	Eastern peninsular region and the Eastern Ghats (including southern part of central region)
Malabar	Western plateau and hill region, Southern plateau and hill region, West coast plains and Ghats region	Semi-arid lava plateau, Humid to semi-arid Western Ghats and Karnataka plateau	: Western Ghats and coastal region	Western peninsular region and the Western Ghats
-	The islands region	Bay islands	: Islands of Andaman & Nicobar; Lakshadweep	The islands regions-Andaman & Nicobar, Lakshadweep

Enough evidence exists pointing to the range of crops of the Harappans, and the appearance of new crops later in the archaeological record, to date the evolutionary process in Indian crops within reasonable limits. The crops of the Harappan period were chiefly of West Asian origin. They included wheat, barley and peas. Of indigenous Indian origin were rice, tree cotton and probably sesame. Rice first appeared in Gujarat and Bihar, not in the centre of the Harappan culture in the Indus Valley. There is some rather doubtful evidence that African crops were also grown by the Harappans. There is a record of sorghum (jowar) from Sind and of Pennisetum (bajra) from Gujarat. Sesame recorded from Punjab is of uncertain origin, having been ascribed by some to Africa and by some to India. The earliest record of the African cereal, Eleusine coracana (ragi) is from Mysore, about 1800 B.C. The South-East Asian crops of importance to India are sugarcane and banana, and they are not of the type likely to leave identifiable remains in the archaeological record. Consequently, nothing is known of them before historic times but both appear in the early literary record. Crops of American origin include maize, grain amaranths and potato. The dating of the introduction of maize is uncertain, the characteristics and distribution of some forms being such as to lend support to the view that they reached India in pre-Columbian times. The potato, on the other hand, was certainly a late introduction by either the Portuguese or the British.

The oldest crops have been under the selective pressures of the Indian environment for about 4500 years, though most of the crops except those of American origin have been exposed for at least 2000 years. The post-Columbian introductions from America, on the other hand, have been in India for less than 500 years (Hutchinson, 1974).

It may also be emphasised here that crops of the Indian subcontinent have influenced the agricultural development of ancient Egyptian, Assyrian, Sumerian and the Hittite Civilization (Nile/Tigris/Euphrates river basins) through their early spread to these regions of the Old World. Also during the early Christian era, several Indian crops/plants were taken to South-East Asian countries by the Buddhists. Much early exchange of plant material had also existed with Africa, while many crops, viz. Citrus, cotton, jute, rice and sugarcane were distributed especially to the Mediterranean region by the Arabs in the 8 - 10th centuries A.D. Similarly, several New World domesticates were introduced into India and reciprocally Indian cultigens were subsequently introduced into the New World (Mehra and Arora, 1982). Further, prevalence of great ethnic diversity and primitive agriculture (Arora, 1987) also points out to the rich heritage of the Indian subcontinent.

Indian subcontinent as gene centre

Genetic diversity and its distribution
Extent of prevalent diversity

India is one of the twelve centres/regions of diversity of crop plants in the world (Zeven and de Wet, 1982). As is evident from the above brief account, antiquity of agriculture as also the ethnic diversity in the sub-continent have played a major role in the diversification of crop resources in this region. Thus, rich genetic diversity occurs in several crop plants and their wild progenitors. As it is, the diverse agro/eco-climate of the 'Hindustani Centre', apart from possessing about 166 species of agri-horticultural crop plants, also has a rich diversity in wild relatives of crop plants numbering about 320 species. In addition, as already reflected above, the Indian agriculture has been enriched by a continuous stream of introductions of new crops and their cultivars by man since the ancient times. The Mughals, Spaniards and the Portuguese brought several new crops to this country. Prominent amongst these were pear, grape, nut fruits, date palm, garlic, opium, maize, potato, sweet potato, tomato, chillies, French bean, peas, etc. The Arabs possibly brought clove, coriander, cumin, ammi or lavage (ajwain) and fennel. This process continued during the British period which saw the introduction of coffee, cocoa, cashew nut, strawberry, litchi, Cinchona, etc., besides collection of tea in Assam and adjoining region. The current matrix of diversity consists of the genepool of indigenous crop plants, their wild and/or weedy relatives and the well adapted introductions from practically all over the globe. The introduced types, depending on the time of introduction, extent of material introduced and the areas of introduction, exhibit enormous build-up of diversity within the Indian subcontinent. Some good examples are: cereals - wheat, barley, oats, maize; pulses - gram, French bean (rajmah) and peas; vegetables -potato, onion, cauliflower, cabbage, carrot and tomato; fruits - apple, pear, grapes, cherry, peach and apricot; oilseeds - soybean, sunflower and groundnut; fibre crop - cotton; to a very limited extent also in medicinal plants-mint, liquorice, Digitalis (foxglove), Cinchona (quinine), Hyoscyamus (henbane) and others such as Humulus lupulus (hops).

Prominent examples of crop species that originated in this region are:

Cereals and millets	: Rice (Oryza sativa), little millet (Panicum sumatrense), kodo millet (Paspalum scrobiculatum).
Legumes/pulses etc.	: Black gram/urid (Vigna mungo), moth bean/moth (V. aconitifolia), pigeonpea/arhar (Cajanus cajan), horsegram/kulthi (Macrotyloma uniflorum), Mucuna utilis.
Fruits	: Mango (Mangifera indica), banana (Musa spp.), jamun (Syzygium cumini), jack fruit/kathal (Artocarpus heterophyllus), Citrus group - lime and others, karonda (Carissa congesta), khirni (Manilkara hexandra), phalsa (Grewia sub-inaequalis/G. asiatica), bael (Aegle marmelos), wood apple (Feronia limonia), kokam (Garcinia indica).
Vegetables	: Eggplant/brinjal (Solarium melongena), ridge gourd and smooth gourd/tori (Luffa spp.), round gourd/tinda (Citrullus lanatus), pointed gourd/parval (Trichosanthes dioica), tares/arbi (Colocasia esculenta), yams (Dioscorea spp.), jimi-kand (Amorphophallus campanulatus), kundri (Coccinea indica), cucumber (Cucumis sativus), Raphanus caudatus - mungra type.
Oilseeds	: Brassica spp. (rai, sarson and toria types).
Spices and condiments	: Turmeric (Curcuma domestica), ginger (Zingiber officinale), cardamom (Elettaria cardamom), Bengal cardamom (Amomum aromaticum), long pepper, black pepper (Piper nigrum), betel leaf and cinnamon/dalchini (Cinnamomum zeylanicum).
Other crops	: Titapat/jute (Corchorus capsularis), tree cotton (Gossypium arboreum), sugarcane (Saccharum officinarum), sunnhemp (Crotalaria juncea), bamboos, dhencha (Sesbania sesban) and tea (Camellia sinensis).

Genetic diversity and its distribution

Our knowledge on the origin of cultivated plants and regions of diversity has considerably increased since the time of de Candolle (1886) and Vavilov (1926). In the earlier chapter, this has been amply elaborated. By and large, these geographic areas vary from eight to twelve (Vavilov, 1926, 1951; Darlington 1956; Zeven and Zhukovsky, 1975; Zeven and de Wet, 1982) in number, lie between 20° and 45° latitude north and south, and are superimposed over the world's major vegetation formations/biomes/floristic zones (Good, 1953). The Indian gene centre is one such important region of diversity of crop plants. It has strong linkages and contiguity with the Indo-Chinese-Indonesian, Chinese-Japanese and the Central-Asian regions. Further, as pointed out above, the influx of germplasm in distant past from the Mediterranean, African and tropical American regions, has built up enormous locally adapted and selected variability.

It has already been stressed that the Indian subcontinent possesses rich floristic wealth. Of this 3,000-5,000 species are of economic value which include about 1,000 wild food plants. The diversity in plant genetic resources numbers around 166 species (Zeven and de Wet, 1982) and the wild genepools of direct or indirect utility, around 320 species, distributed in eight phyto-geographical/agro-ecological zones (Arora and Nayar, 1984). By and large, India is:

1. a primary centre of diversity for crops, such as rice, black gram, moth bean, pigeonpea, cucurbits like smooth gourd, ridge gourd and pointed gourd, tree cotton, capsularis jute, jack fruit, banana, mango, Syzygium cumini/jamun, large cardamom, black pepper and several minor millets and medicinal plants like Rauvolfia serpentina and Saussurea lappa.

2. a secondary centre of diversity for African crops, such as finger millet, sorghum, cowpea, cluster bean, okra, sesame, niger and safflower; tropical American types like maize, tomato, pumpkin/Cucurbita spp., chayote or chou chou, chillies and Amaranthus; and with,

3. regional (Asiatic) diversity, for crops like maize, barley, amaranth, buckwheat, prosomillet, foxtail millet, mung bean/green gram, chickpea, cucumber, bitter gourd, bottle gourd, snake gourd and Brassicae.

Extent of prevalent diversity

Crop plants
Wild relatives

Different agro-ecological/phyto-geographical regions of India, thus hold rich diversity in both the cultivated and the wild crop genepools. Based on the areas and crops, the following brief analysis on the distribution and extent of crop-plant diversity is given:

Crop plants

The following regions exhibit richness in crop plant diversity (Arora, 1988):

1. Western Himalayas including cold arid tract: In Kinnaur, Lahaul and Spiti, Pangi, Ladakh and adjoining areas, rich genetic diversity occurs in wheat, barley (particularly hull-less types), buckwheat, prosomillet, amaranth, chenopods, field peas, lentil and several other crops, possessing adaptability to cold and tolerance to drought conditions. In barley, bluish/black grain types occur at high altitudes (above 3300 m), exhibiting akinness to local Tibetan types. In wheat, both awned and awnless, tall types occur and collections from Lahaul and Spiti have exhibited resistance/tolerance to rust. Further, rich diversity in rice, maize, French bean, peas, buckwheat, amaranth and other crops - radish, leafy Brassicae, pome, stone and nut fruits, forages and medicinal plants, occurs in the sub-humid hill regions of Jammu and Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh and Uttar Pradesh.

2. North-eastern region and the Eastern Himalayas: The tribal dominated belts of Mizoram, Manipur, Meghalaya, Tripura, Sikkim, North Bengal and parts of Nagaland and Arunachal Pradesh, are rich in local variability of cereals - rice, maize (including the primitive pop-corn), barley, wheat; pseudocereals - buckwheat, Chenopodium, amaranth and soft-shelled forms in Coix; millets -finger millet, foxtail millet; legumes - rice bean, winged bean, adzuki bean, black gram, sem/Dolichos, soybean, sword bean, peas; oilseeds - Brassica spp., Perilla, sesame, niger; vegetables - cucurbits (Cyclanthera, Cucurbita, Momordica, Cucumis, Luffa, Lagenaria, Benincasa); fibres-Corchorus spp., tree cotton, kenaf and mesta; taro/yam and several other tuberous/rhizomatous/bulbous types, and in Citrus, Musa and bamboos.

3. Eastern peninsular region: The tribal dominated tract of Orissa and the Chotanagpur plateau may serve as good examples of areas that hold rich crop diversity viz. rice, sorghum, finger millet, fox-tail millet, prosomillet and other minor millets, Dolichos, rice bean, chickpea, pigeonpea, horsegram/kulthi, sesame, niger, Brassicae, linseed, castor, several cucurbits, brinjal, chillies, mango and wild types such as in rice (Oryza nivara).

4. Western arid/semi-arid region: In Rajasthan and Gujarat (including Saurashtra), rich diversity occurs in sorghum, pearl millet, moth bean, cluster bean/guar, cowpea, black gram, green gram, Brassicae, sesame, cucurbits, forage legumes and grasses.

5. Central tribal region: Madhya Pradesh and adjoining tract of Maharashtra possess rich diversity in wheat, rice, sorghum, minor millets, grain legumes - particularly cowpea, chickpea, pigeonpea, black gram and green gram; oilseeds -niger, sesame, Brassicae; and cucurbits.

6. Western peninsular region: The Western Ghats tract has promising diversity in tuber crops - Colocasia, Dioscorea and Coleus; rhizomatous types like Curcuma species and ginger, and other crops like rice, finger millet, several grain legumes, and much variation in cucurbits, forage legumes and grasses; several fruit trees such as jack fruit and spices like cardamom and black pepper.

Table 2. Agro-ecological regions holding rich crop-plant diversity in India (refer Fig. 1)

1. Western Himalayas

· Barley, wheat, maize, buckwheat, amaranth, prosomillet, finger millet
· French bean, soybean, lentil, black gram, peas
· Pumpkin, cucumber, Allium spp., ginger, Brassicae
· Pome, stone, soft and nut fruits
· Medics

· Barley, maize, buckwheat, amaranth, finger millet, foxtail millet
· French bean, soybean, cowpea, black gram, peas, scarlet bean
· Pumpkin, cucumber, Allium spp. ginger, chayote, tree tomato, Brassicae
· Pome and stone fruits

· Rice, maize, sorghum, finger millet, foxtail millet, Job's tears
· French bean, soybean, pigeonpea (perennial), black gram, rice bean, Dolichos bean, winged bean
· Pumpkin, chayote, cucumber, okra, eggplant, chilli/Capsicum spp. pointed gourd, ash gourd
· Taros, yams
· Citrus - Lime/lemon/orange/grape fruit, banana
· Tea, tree cotton, jute, kenaf and mesta, large cardamom, ginger, long pepper, sugarcane

· Rice, sorghum, barnyard millet, little millet/Panicum
· Chickpea, cowpea, mung bean
· Okra, eggplant, bittergourd, Cucumis spp., Luffa spp.
· Jackfruit, mango, lemon/lime, orange, jujube, Indian gooseberry/Emblica, jamun/Syzygium, melons
· Linseed, niger, sesame, Brassicae
· Sugarcane, mulberry

· Durum wheat, pearl millet
· Moth bean, cluster bean, chickpea, black gram
· Okra, Cucumis spp.
· Jujube, Khirni/Mimusops, Phalsa/Grewia
· Sesame, Taramira/Eruca
· Cotton

· Rice, sorghum, finger millet, pearl millet, foxtail millet, little millet, prosomillet, kodo millet
· Black gram, green gram, cowpea, horse gram, Mucuna, pigeonpea, Dolichos bean, rice bean
· Taros, yams, elephant-foot yam
· Banana, mango, lemon/lime, jackfruit
· Niger, Brassicae, sesame
· Ginger, turmeric, chilli/Capsicum, kenaf, sugarcane, coconut, cotton

· Rice, sorghum, finger millet, small millet/Panicum
· Black gram, green gram, cowpea, pigeonpea, Dolichos bean, horse gram, sword bean
· Okra, eggplant, cucumber, chilli/Capsicum
· Taros, yams, elephant-foot yam
· Jackfruit, banana, lime/lemon, orange, jamun/Syzygium
· Sugarcane, black pepper, turmeric, ginger, coconut, arecanut, cotton

· Coconut, breadfruit, chilli, taros, yams, Xanthosoma

Wild relatives

The floristic diversity available in the wild relatives and related types of cultivated plants in India is estimated to about 320 species, of which about 60 are endemic taxa. The range of species strength in different genera of wild relatives of crop plants and related taxa is exhibited in Fig. 3, taxa such as Cicer (1), Sesamum (3), and Mangifera (3) with very small number, others like Vigna (10) and Atylosia (15) with moderate strength, and Solarium (32) and Piper (50) being well represented. Category-wise, the number of such species of agri-horticultural importance is as follows (Arora and Nayar, 1984):

Crop groups	Number of wild species
Cereals and millets	51
Legumes	31
Fruits	109
Vegetables	54
Oilseeds	12
Fibre plants	24
Spices and condiments	27
Others	26

The above diversity is largely distributed in the warm humid tropical, sub-tropical regions, western Himalayas and the north-eastern region, with low representation in the north-western and Indo-Gangetic plains (Fig. 4). The number of wild species occurring in different phyto-geographical zones is given. Primarily, these species occur in secondary vegetation/open forest habitats, disturbed sites except for humid tropical trees like species of Syzygium and Artocarpus and some shade loving undergrowth and climbers such as Piper species.

Fig. 3. The number of species in some important taxa of wild relatives of crop plants

Fig. 4. Species diversity in wild relatives of crop plants (Arora and Nayar, 1984) in different phyto-geographical regions

Phyto-geographical zone	Number of wild species
Western Himalayas	125
Eastern Himalayas	82
North-Eastern region	132
Gangetic plains	66
Indus plains (western plains)	45
Western peninsular region/Malabar	145
Eastern peninsular region/Deccan	91

Prominent examples may be given. Thus, in wild rice, both annual and perennial types occur, and of these Oryza nivara (annual; source of rice tungro virus resistance) from eastern peninsular region is important. Rich diversity also occurs in the southern region. The wild forms of Job's tears (Coix lacryma-jobi) occur predominantly in northeastern region, and in the peninsular tract. Several other members of Old World Maydeae - a group to which maize belongs, viz., Chionachne, Polytoca and Trilobachne and species of Saccharum, Erianthus, Sclerostachya and Narenga occur in peninsular tracts extending to the north-eastern region.

Among legumes, much variability occurs in wild forms of green gram, black gram and moth bean. Some types locally called van-moong (wild Vigna radiata - sublobata type) provide sources of resistance to yellow-vein-mosaic virus. Many forms of this taxa resembling black gram and green gram occur as forest undergrowth in the Western Ghats along with the wild forms of pigeonpea (arhar), i.e., bushy species of Atylosia (A. sericea, and A. lineata) which are reported to be resistant to wilt. Another important wild relative of pigeonpea, i.e., Atylosia cajanifolia occurs in the Eastern Ghats. Much variability in wild types in rice bean, Vigna umbellata occurs in the north-eastern region and sporadically in the Western Himalayas, the Eastern and Western Ghats. Among others, Cicer microphyllum, a species related to the cultivated gram, occurs in the Western Himalayan cold arid region.

Among oilseeds, a wild sesame, Sesamum prostratum, occurs in the coastal tract of Andhra Pradesh, and is resistant to phyllody and caterpillar pests. In fibre types, wild forms of jute (Corchorus capsularis) having branching habit and smaller fruits occur in the North-East.

Among vegetable types, wild okra, Abelmoschus tuberculatus (related to the cultivated okra, A. esculentus), a widely grown cultigen, occurs in the north-western plains and is represented by tall types with tuberculate fruits. The wild forms of brinjal, Solanum incanum and S. melongena var. insanum are distributed from peninsular region to the foot of the Himalayas but their populations are scanty and rather more sporadic even within the same area/site. Other wild germplasm includes species of Momordica, Trichosanthes and Cucumis (wild cucumber), the former two being predominant in the north-eastern and peninsular tracts and Cucumis even extending to the hills.

Several species of wild ginger and turmeric (Zingiber, Hedychium, Curcuma), and in root crops likewise of wild yams (Dioscorea) and taros (Alocasia, Colocasia) occur, particularly in the humid tropical habitats in the Western and Eastern Ghats and in the north-east.

In the forests of the western and eastern peninsular regions, many wild types in Piper and Vitis (Cissus) occur. Immense variation in wild species of Musa, Mangifera and Citrus occurs in the north-eastern region. In the Himalayas, wild forms in crab apple, pear, cherries and others occur and several of these constitute hardy, cold tolerant root stocks, e.g., species of Pyrus, Malus, Prunus, Rubus, Sorbus, Docynia, Cotoneaster, Ribes and others. Also local variability occurs here in the wild populations of nut trees, particularly in walnut, Juglans regia.

Appendix II (a) lists the wild species diversity occurring in different phyto-geographical regions and Appendix II (b), the rare and/or endemic species of wild relatives of crop plants grouped according to the economic-plant categories (Arora et al., 1983; Arora and Nayar, 1984).

Diversity in other economic plants

Medicinal and aromatic plants
Forest trees
Wild forage plants
Native ornamental plants

Medicinal and aromatic plants

There are about 1,500 medicinal plants in India. Old works such as Charaka-Samhita and Susruta-Samhita deal with 700 drugs and curative properties of herbs are mentioned in the Rigveda. Traditional societies still use native wild plants for medicinal purposes, apart from several of them being taken up for industrial use such as the sarpa-gandha (Rauvolfia serpentina). Some prominent indigenous medicinal plant species are listed below.

Tropical

Bach (Acorus calamus), galangal (Alpinia galanga), kalmegh (Andrographis paniculata), brahmi (Bacopa monnierri), punarnava (Boerhaavia diffusa), Centella asiatica, somraj (Centratherum anthelminticum), Cymbopogon citratus, C. flexuosus, C. nardus, aonla (Emblica officinalis), anantmul/Indian sarsaparilla (Hemidesmus indicus), kurchi (Holarrhena antidysenterica), tulsi (Ocimum sanctum), piplamul (Piper longum), babchi (Psoralea corylifolia), sarpagandha (Rauvolfia serpentina), bahera (Terminalia bellerica), antamul (Tylophora indica), Indian squill (Urgenia indica), amaltas (Cassia fistula), Jasmine (Jasminum spp.), khas-khas (Vetiveria zizanoides), and ashva-gandha (Withania somnifera).

Temperate

Atis (Aconitum heterophyllum), Indian belladona (Atropa acuminata), Indian berberry (Berberis asiatica), kutki (Gentiana kurroo), katki (Picrorhiza kurroa), Colchicum luteum, Indian henbene (Hyoscyamus niger), jatamansi (Nardostachys jatamansi), papri (Podophyllum hexandrum), rubarb (Rheum emodi), chirayata (Swertia chirayita), kuth (Saussurea lappa) and Valeriana officinalis.

Forest trees

Based on climate and vegetation, there are 16 forest types in India wherein indigenous forest tree resources are mainly distributed. These represent a great variety of life-forms in the tropical evergreen, semi-evergreen, deciduous and littoral forests; the sub-tropical broadleaved and temperate to alpine conifer-mixed forests.

A wide variety of hard and soft-wood indigenous tree species abound in these habitats and important ones are listed below.

Tropical

Aini (Artocarpus hirsutus), babul (Acacia nilotica), banteak (Lagerstroemia lanceolata), bijasal (Pterocarpus marsupium), gurjan (Dipterocarus indicus), haldu (Adina cordifolia), hollock (Terminalia myriocarpa), khair (Acacia catechu), sins (Albizia lebbek), khejri (Prosopis spicigera), laurel (Terminalia tomentosa), maharukh (Ailanthus excelsa), mahua (Madhuca indica), mango (Mangifera indica), neem (Azadirachta indica), phaduk (Pterocarpus dalbergioides), red Sanders (P. santalinus), rose wood (Dalbergia latifolia), sal (Shorea robusta), salai (Boswellia serrata), sandal wood (Santalum album), semul (Bombax ceiba), shisham (Dalbergia sissoo), teak (Tectona grandis), toon (Toona ciliata), white cedar (Dysoxylum malabaricum), and the bamboos - Dendrocalamus strictus and Bambusa arundinacea.

Temperate

Chir (Pinus roxburghii), kail (P. wallichiana), chilgoza (P. girardiana), deodar (Cedrus deodara), Himalayan fir (Abies pindrow), spruce (Picea smithiana) and the Indian birch (Betula utilis).

Wild forage plants

A rich diversity of wild herbage legumes occurs in different phyto-geographical regions of India (Arora and Chandel, 1972). About 400 species belonging to about 60 genera are known. Some of these taxa possessing large number of species (given for each genus in parenthesis) are: tropical/sub-tropical types; Alysicarpus (12), Atylosia (16), Crotalaria (82), Desmodium (44), Indigofera (44), Mucuna (10), Rhynchosia (23) and Smithia (13); temperate types - Astragalus (36), Lespedeza (13), Trigonella (10) and Vigna (10). Several genera possessing small number of species such as Canavalia (4), Caragana (6), Clitoria (3), Dolichos (5), Hedysarum (4), Medicago (4), Melilotus (2), Teramnus (3); and even those with single species representation in India, e.g., Heylan dia, Rothia, Cicer and Parochetus, constitute equally promising resources.

The grasses constitute another important group represented by about 245 genera and 1,256 species, of which 21 genera and 139 species are endemic. About 600 species belonging to 58 genera are referred as palatable to livestock (Arora et al., 1975) - tropical/sub-tropical types with large number of species such as Aristida (15), Arundinella (16), Bothriochloa (16), Brachiaria (15), Digitaria (22), Dimeria (18), Eragrostis (28), Eulalia (13), Ischaemum (32), Panicum (24), Pennisetum (10), Setaria (11), Sporobolus (14) and Themeda (17); and temperate types such as Agrostis (20), Bromus (10), Festuca (12) and Poa (35). Genera holding small number of species are Andropogon (5), Cenchrus (6), Coix (4), Dichanthium (8), Echinochloa (5), Iseilema (4), Sehima (4), Urochloa (4); and temprate types such as Calamogrostis (5), Phleum (4) and Koeleria (2).

This diversity, both in herbage legumes and grasses, is largely distributed in the Western Ghats, Eastern Ghats, north-eastern region and the Himalayas. Species of proven utility mainly belong to legumes and grasses.

Legumes

Temperate species, such as Cicer microphyllum, Lespedeza floribunda, Medicago falcata, M. denticulata, Trigonella gracilis, Vicia pallida, V. tenuifolia, Lotus corniculatus, Parochetus communis; and tropical/subtropical types like Pueraria phaseoloides, Mucuna pruriens, Clitoria ternatea, Teramnus labialis, Desmodium triflorum, D. gyroides, D. floribundum, Smithia ciliata, S. setulosa, Alysicarpus vaginalis and Zornia diphylla.

Grasses

Temperate species, such as Agrostis gigantea, A. munroana, Brachypodium pinnatum, Bromus inermis, Muhlenbergia himalayensis, Phleum alpinum, Poa alpina and Dactylis glomerata; tropical/subtropical types like Apluda mutica, Dichanthium annulatum, D. caricosum, Panicum repens, Oplismenus compositus, Digitaria adscendens, D. cruciata, Bothriochloa intermedia, Ischaemum pilosum, I. laxum, Setaria pallide-fusca, Sehima nervosum, Cenchrus ciliaris, C. setigerus, Centotheca lappacea and Themeda triandra.

Native ornamental plants

Rich diversity also occurs in the Indian subcontinent in ornamental trees, shrubs, climbers, herbs, succulents, etc. Old Sanskrit literature refers to ornamental trees/plants such as arjuna (Terminalia arjuna), ashoka (Saraca indica), champaka (Michelia champaca), kadam (Anthocephalus cadamba), kimsuka (Butea monosperma), kavidara (Bauhinia purpurea), kunda (Jasminum pubescens), mandera (Erythrina indica), naga kesara (Mesua ferrea), parijataka (Nyctanthes arbor-tristis) and even mango or chuta (Mangifera indica). The Kushan sculpture mentions the ashoka trees, and sculptures of vedic times and Kalidasa mention about the lotus (Nelumbium speciosum) plant besides Madahwi lata (Hiptage madablota) and several of above plants. The poet Aswaghosa (100 A.D.) mentions lotus in his Buddha Charita. In Ramayana, we find mention of trees such as ashoka, kimsuka/dhak, amaltas (Cassia fistula), kadam and peepal (Ficus religiosa). Lord Krishna is also associated with many of these ornamentals. In Mahabharata and during the Ashoka period (233 B.C.), many of these trees were grown as avenue trees. Indian ornamentals were reproduced in the form of flower and tree motifs in sculpture and architecture of Mathura (Kanishka 98-101 A.D.) and in Ajanta Frescoes (100 - 600 A.D.). Some noteworthy native ornamental plants are given below.

Trees

Neem (Azadirachta indica), kadam (Anthocephalus cadamba), kachnar (Bauhinia variegata), dhak (Butea monosperma), amaltas (Cassia fistula), peepal (Ficus religiosa), bor (F. benghalensis), banteak (Lagerstroemia speciosa), siris (Albizia lebbek), semul (Bombax ceiba), kanak champa (Pterocarpus acerifolium), imli (Tamarindus indica), arjuna (Terminalia arjuna), Indian almond (Terminalia catappa), ashoka (Saraca indica), champaka (Michelia champaca), naga champa (Mesua ferrea), ashok (Polyalthia longifolia), Gardenia latifolia, Ficus elastica, Crataeva religiosa, Pongamia pinnata, Cochlospermum religiosum, Dalbergia sissoo, Millingtonia hortensis and Putranjiva roxburghii.

Climbers

Beaumontia grandiflora, Chonemorpha macrophylla, Clematis gouriana, Clitoria ternatea, Hiptage madablota, Holmskoeldia sanguinea, Jasminum sambac and other spp; Parana racemosa, Thunbergia grandiflora, T. fragrans, Trachelospermum fragrans and Wagatea spicata.

Shrubs

Argyreia speciosa, Bauhinia tomentosa, Barleria cristata, Buddleja asiatica, Carissa congesta, Clerodendrum inerme, Eranthemum nervosum, Hamiltonia suaveolens, Murraya exotica, M. koenigii, Mussaenda frondosa, Sophora tomentosa, Strobilanthes spp; Vitex trifolia, Woodfordia floribunda, Reinwardtia trigyna and Ervatamia coronaria (chandni).

Summary

India is one of the centres/regions of crop plant diversity. It is equally rich, unique and interesting in its floristic wealth. About 15,000 species of higher plants occur, of which over 30 percent are endemic. These also include the wild relatives of crop plants. An effort has been made to briefly deal with the distribution and extent of this diversity located in different phyto-geographical/agro-ecological zones of the country. 166 cultivated plant species, of which about 50 are truly of Indian origin, exhibit rich diversity in this subcontinent. Further, about 320 species of wild relatives of crop plants occur and their distribution and diversity is discussed. Besides, the indigenous diversity in medicinal plants, forest trees, wild forage legumes and grasses, and in native ornamental plants has also been listed, thus pointing to overall richness of plant resources of India. Antiquity of Indian agriculture and its rich heritage, which is even evident today by the prevalence of ethnic diversity and traditional cultivation as in the north-eastern and peninsular regions, has been highlighted. It is pointed out that climate apart, cultural and historical factors have effectively contributed to the introduction of several crops of African, American, European and South-east/East Asian origin. The Indian subcontinent, thus holds prominence as one of 'the twelve regions of diversity in crop plants in global perspective.

References

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Arora, R.K. 1988. The Indian gene centre - Priorities and prospects for collection, pp. 66-75. In Plant genetic resources: Indian perspective (Eds., R.S. Paroda, R.K. Arora and K.P.S. Chandel). NBPGR Publ., New Delhi. 545 p.

Arora, R.K. and K.P.S. Chandel. 1972. Botanical source areas of wild herbage legumes in India. Trop. Grasslands. 6 (3): 213-221.

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Mehra, K.L. and R.K. Arora. 1982. Plant genetic resources of India: Their diversity and conservation. NBPGR Sci. Monogr. No. 4. 60 p.

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Vavilov, N.I. 1951. The origin, variation, immunity and breeding of cultivated crops. Chron. Bot. 13: 364 p.

Zeven, A.C. and J.M.J. de Wet. 1982. Dictionary of cultivated plants and their regions of diversity. Wageningen. 259 p.

Zeven, A.C. and PM. Zhukovsky. 1975. Dictionary of cultivated plants and their centres of diversity. Wageningen. 219 p.

Appendix I (a). Crops and areas where rich diversity in landraces and primitive cultivars occurs (Mehra and Arora, 1982; with additions by the author)

Cereals and pseudo-cereals
Rice	: North-eastern region in Arunachal Pradesh, Garo and Khasi hills of Meghalaya; Mizoram, Manipur and Nagaland; north Bengal and Sikkim; and the mountain tracts of upper Assam including Mikir hills and Cachar (more attention required in these areas).
	: Tribal dominated tracts of eastern and central India, including Jeypore tract of Orissa, Koraput, Keonjhar, Kalahandi, Santhal Parganas and Chotanagpur hills of Bihar; Bastar, Rewa, Bilaspur, Sarguja, Raigarh, Raipur and adjoining tract in M. P; and hill agency areas of east Godavari and adjoining region in Andhra Pradesh.
	: Chikmagalur, Shimoga and adjoining tracts in Karnataka extending to mountains of Tamil Nadu and Kerala in the Western Ghats.
	: Western Himalayan region including H. P., J & K, and U.P. hills in Uttarkhand and Kumaon Himalayas.
Maize	: North-eastern region, Cachar and Mikir hills, Arunachal Pradesh and north Bengal.
	: Tribal areas of peninsular region in A. P., Orissa, Bihar and northern M. P.
	: Mountain belt of Nilgiris and Pulney hills of Karnataka adjoining Chikmagalur.
	: Western Himalayas, Chamba and adjoining areas in H. P., Kumaon and Uttarkhand in U. P. hills.
Wheat	: Particularly in northern India, hilly tracts in Western Himalayas; Kinnaur, Lahaul and Spiti, Pangi valley in H.P., extending to Ladakh in Kashmir; also Baramula, Usmaro, Gurez valley in J & K.
	: Eastern region in north Bengal, Sikkim and Arunachal Pradesh.
	: Peninsular north-western, central plains; drier tracts of Maharashtra, Karnataka and A. P.
Barley	: Peninsular tract, western and northern M.P., and western India in Rajasthan, eastern Maharashtra and parts of Karnataka.
	: Western and Eastern Himalayas in areas indicated above for wheat (naked and hooded types), in north Bihar and in other areas of peninsular India in wheat belt (husked types).
Secale	: Dry cold arid areas of Ladakh, Lahaul and Spiti, Pangi valley and Kinnaur in particular, sporadic distribution occurs in higher elevation, above 2100 m.
Buckwheat	: Hilly tract of north-eastern region, particularly in Arunachal Pradesh and Sikkim.
	: Western himalayas - in Pangi valley, Lahaul and Spiti, Kinnaur and adjoining region in H. P; U. P. hills in Garhwal, Uttarkhand and Kumaon; and in Kashmir valley including Ladakh.
Amaranth	: North-eastern region in north Bengal, Sikkim and in particular Arunachal Pradesh.
	: Western Himalayas in H. P., U. P. hills and Kashmir.
	: North-western and central plains; eastern Maharashtra.
Millets
Sorghum	: Tribal tracts of M. P. in Bastar, and adjoining region in A.P.-Cuddapah, east-Godavari, Srikakulum and Vishakapatnam and Khammam; Santhal Parganas and Chotanagpur in Bihar, Chandrapur and adjoining tract in Maharashtra; and Gunjam, Kalahandi and adjoining hilly tract in Orissa.
	: Western part of Tamil Nadu in Coimbatore and Salem, and also hills of Karnataka.
	: The foot hill region of the Himalayas.
	: North-eastern hills, bordering Burma.
Pearl millet	: Particularly tribal belt of Gujarat and Western Rajasthan, also in adjacent M.P., and Karnataka.
Lesser millets
Foxtail millet (Setaria italica)	: Western and north-eastern region including the Himalayan tract and sub-tropical Assam, hilly region and adjoining areas in particular.
	: Tribal belt of peninsular India, particularly in M. P., A.P., Orissa and adjoining Bihar.
	: In Western Ghats, eastern Maharashtra and southwards, more in drier tract.
Finger millet (Eleusine coracana)	: Tribal belt of peninsular India, particularly in north of M.P. and Tamil Nadu, A. P. and Orissa; and also lower hills - upto 2,100m in the Himalayas.
Kodo millet (Paspalum scrobiculatum)	: Central peninsular belt in M. P., Bihar and Orissa in particular.
Sawan (Echinochloa colonum)	: The above areas (for kodo) and the hills of north-western and eastern region.
Cheena or Pro so millet (Panicum miliaceum)	: Hills of H. P., U.P., particularly higher elevation, also in parts of Gujarat and Maharashtra and in Bihar and Bengal, extending to Arunachal Pradesh.
Panicum miliare	: Tribal belt of A.P., Orissa, Bihar, M. P. and Maharashtra, particularly in Orissa-Kalahandi, Keonjhar and Phulbani; adjacent parts of M. P. and Bihar; and in W. Bengal.
Coix lacryma-jobi (soft-shelled forms)	: North-eastern part in Meghalaya, Manipur, Mizoram and Nagaland; particularly in Garo and Khasi hills of Meghalaya.
Grain and other legumes
Green gram (Vigna radiata)	: Tribal agency areas of east Godavari and adjoining tract in A. P., also in Warangal and Khammam; and Orissa-Phulbani, Kalahandi and other tribal tracts extending to M.P. southwards, east/westwards.
	: Northern India, in comparatively drier areas of Hisar (Haryana) and Ferozepur (Punjab).
	: Western India, tribal tracts in Dhulia, Parbhani, Aurangabad in Maharashtra; Panchmahal and Kaira tract in Gujarat; also Dharwar and neighbouring tract in Karnataka.
Black gram (Vigna mungo)	: Hill tracts of H. P., valley and other areas; U. P. hills in Nainital, Rampur and adjoining tracts; in north Bengal and upper Assam.
	: Tribal belt of peninsular India as indicated above for green gram; agency areas of Godavari and adjoining tract, Guntur and Krishna in A.P; Raipur, Durg and Bilaspur in M.P.; and Santhal Parganas, Ranchi, Bhagalpur, Singhbhum and Purnea in Bihar.
	: In western India, Kutch, Surat and Panchmahal in Gujarat; and eastern Maharashtra mainly.
	: Northern plains, in U.P. particularly Sitapur, Barabanki, Hardoi and Bareilly; Ambala in Haryana and Ferozepur in Punjab.
Rice bean (Vigna umbellata)	: North-eastern region including Assam plains; adjoining hill regions; north Bengal and Sikkim; and particularly Garo and Khasi hills of Meghalaya, Manipur and Mizoram tracts.
	: Tribal belts of Orissa and Bihar; and the agency areas of east Godavari in A. P., particularly Kalahandi and Phulbani in Orissa and Santhal Parganas in Bihar.
Moth bean (Vigna aconitifolia)	: Kutch, Kaira and other dry areas in Gujarat; west Rajasthan; and eastern Maharashtra (mainly northwest drier plains.
Pilipasara (Vigna trilobata)	: Tribal agency areas of A. P., east Godavari; Krishna and adjoining tract of Tamil Nadu.
Red gram	: Tribal belt of peninsular India, particularly in Kalahandi, Phulbani, Keonjhar and other tracts of Orissa; and adjoining U. P., and Bihar (largely eastern peninsular tract and adjoining region).
	: Hill region of north-east, mainly in Mizoram.
Bengal gram (Cicer arietinum)	: Bundelkhand area in U. P., Banda, Jhansi; Raipur, Chattarpur, and Bilaspur in M.P., and other areas of eastern U.P.
Lentil (Lens culinaris)	: Western Himalayan region of H. P., and U. P. hills in particular; and parts of M. P., central peninsular tract.
	: Eastern Himalayas in north Bengal and adjoining areas (sporadic).
Cowpea (Vigna unguiculata)	: Hill regions of northern and eastern India, including north-eastern hilly tribal tract.
	: Tribal tracts of A. P., Orissa, Bihar and M. P.
	: Partly in Western Ghats, and Maharashtra southward and particularly Karnataka hills, Chikmagalur and other areas.
Vegetables
Eggplant	: Eastern peninsular and north-eastern region.
Okra Cucurbits	: Gangetic and western arid plains; north-eastern region.
Pointed gourd	: Gangetic plains and north-eastern region.
Round gourd	: Parts of Haryana mainly Gangetic plains, northern part.
Bitter gourd	: Gangetic plains; central highlands and north-eastern region.
Ridge & smooth gourd	: Gangetic plains mainly.
Snake gourd	: Eastern and western peninsular region; north-eastern region.
Cucumber	: Sporadic diversity available all through, including the Himalayan region.
Leafy types	: Gangetic plains and the north-eastern region (Amaranth, Brassicae); Himalayan region.
Fruits/Nuts
Banana/Musa spp.	Eastern and western peninsular region; north-eastern region.
Jack fruit	Western peninsular region, Western Ghats; central highlands and adjoining Gangetic plains.
Jamun	Gangetic plains; western peninsular region, northern part in Maharashtra; western plains.
Indian gooseberry/Emblica officinalis	Gangetic plains mainly.
Pyrus/Prunus/Rubus	Western and Eastern Himalayas.
Walnut	Western Himalayas, cold arid and temperate (ca 3000m) belt.
Miscellaneous
Jute and tree cotton	North-eastern region.
Ginger	North-eastern region; parts of H.P.; eastern and western peninsular region.
Turmeric	Eastern and western peninsular region.
Black pepper	Western Ghats - mainly southern part.
Black caraway	Cold arid belt - Western Himalayas.
Sugarcane	. Eastern and western peninsular region mainly, sporadic variability in north-eastern region.

A. P. - Andhra Pradesh; H. P. - Himachal Pradesh; M. P. - Madhya Pradesh; U. P. - Uttar Pradesh; J & K. - Jammu and Kashmir.

Appendix I (b). Rice varieties from Kerala with useful genes (Khoshoo, 1986)

Resistant, tolerant to insects
PTB 10, PTB 12, PTB 18, PTB 21, PTB 27, PTB 28, PTB 32, Chennelu, Valsara champara, Vellathil cheera	Gall midge
PTB 15, PTB 18, PTB 2	Stem borer
PTB 18, PTB 21, PTB 24, PTB 27	Green leaf hopper
PTB 19 (and to thrips), PTB 20, PTB 21	Brown plant hopper
PTB 33 (all known biotypes), Karutha vellathan, Chennelu, Valsara champara, Vellathil cheera, PTB 33.	White backed plant hopper
Resistant/tolerant to diseases
PTB 18, Chennelu, Valsara champara, Vellathil cheera	Rice tungro virus
PTB 10, PTB 18, PTB 19, PTB 20, PTB 21, PTB 32	Blast
PTB 29	Bacterial leaf blight
Salt tolerant
Pokkali
Cheruviruppu

PTB refers to famous Pottambi rices; other significant localised pockets of such diversity of useful genes occur in the Eastern Ghats and north-eastern region.

Appendix II (a). Distribution of important wild relatives and related types in different phyto-geographical zones (Arora and Nayar, 1984)

Cereals and millets

· Western Himalayas: Avena fatua, A. ludoviciana, A. barbata, Aegilops tauschii, Digitaria sanguinalis, Hordeum spontaneum, H. glaucum, H. turkestanicum, Elymus dahuricus, E. dasystachys, E. nutans, Eremopyrum buonapartis, E. distorts, E. orientate, Pennisetum orientate.

· Eastern Himalayas: Hordeum agricrithon.

· North-eastern region: Digitaria cruciata, Coix lacryma-jobi, C. gigantea, C. aquatica, Oryza rufipogon, Polytoca wallichiana.

· Gangetic plains: Panicum psilopodium, Oryza nirvara, Chionachne koenigii.

· Western peninsular tract: Panicum psilopodium, Sclerophyllum coarctatum, Setaria glauca, Chionachne koenigii, C. semiteres, Coix gigantea, Trilobachne cookei.

· Eastern peninsular tract: Oryza nivara, O. rufipogon, O. jeyporensis, O. granulata, O. malampuzhensis, Sclerophyllum coarctatum, Polytoca digitata.

· Widely distributed: Eleusine indica, E. compressa, Echinochloa crusgalli, Setaria tomentosa, S. pallide-fusca, S. verticillata, S. viridis.

· Western Himalayas: Cicer microphyllum, Lathyrus aphaca, Moghania vestita, Mucuna capitata, Trigonella emodi, Vigna capensis, V. radiata var. sublobata, V. umbellata.

· Eastern Himalayas: Moghania vestita, M. bracteata, Vigna capensis, V. umbellata, V. pilosa.

· North-eastern region: Atylosia barbata, A. scarabaeoides, A. villosa, Canavalia ensiformis, Moghania vestita, Mucuna bracteata, Vigna umbellata, V. radiate var. sublobata, V. pilosa.

· Gangetic plains: Atylosia mollisma, A. platycarpa, A scarabaeoides, A villosa, Trigonella corniculata, T. polycerata, T. occulta, Lathyrus aphaca, Vicia sativa, Vigna aconitifolia, V. radiata var. sublobata.

· Indus plains: Vigna aconitifolia, V. trilobata, Trigonella occulta, Atylosia scarabaeoides, Lathyrus aphaca.

· Western peninsular tract: Atylosia albicans, A. barbata, A. candollei, A elongata, A. geminiflora, A. kulnensis, A. lineata, A. mollis, A. nivea, A platycarpa, A rugosa, A. rostrata, A. scarabaeoides, A. sericea, A. villosa, Canavalia ensiformis var. virosa, C. obtusifolia, Dolichos uniflorus, D. bracteatus, Mucuna pruriens, Vigna radiata var. sublobata, V. capensis, V. pilosa, V. umbellata, V. dalzelliana (V. mungo var. silvestris, V. radiata var. setulosa, V. grandis - in north).

· Eastern peninsular tract: Atylosia albicans, A. candollei, A. barbata, A. cajanifolia, A geminiflora, A. kulnesis (southern parts), A. mollis, A rostrata, A. rugosa, A. scarabaeoides, Dolichos purpureus-lignosus types, Vigna radiata var. sublobata, V. capensis, V. trilobata, V. aconitifolia.

· Western Himalayas: Elaeagnus hortensis, Ficus palmata, Fragaria indica, Moms spp., Prunus acuminata, P. cerasiodes, P. cornuta, P. napaulensis, P. prostrata, P. tomentosa, Pyrus baccata, P. communis, P. kumaoni, P. pashia, Ribes graciale, R. nigrum, Rubus ellipticus, R. moluccanus, R. fruticosus, R. lasiocarpus, R. lanatus, R. niveus, R. reticulatus, Zizyphus vulgaris.

· Eastern Himalayas: Fragaria indica, Morus spp., Myrica esculenta, Prunus acuminata, P. cerasiodes, P. cornuta, P. jenkinsii, P. napaulensis, Pyrus pashia, Ribes graciale, Rubus lineatus, R. ellipticus, R. lasiocarpus, R. moluccanus, R. reticulatus.

· North-eastern region: Citrus assamensis, C. ichangensis, C. indica, C. jambiri, C. latipes, C. macroptera, C. media, C. aurantium, Docynia indica, D. hookeriana, Eriobotrya angustifolia, Mangifera sylvatica, Musa accuminata/M. balbisiana complex, M. manii, M. nagensium, M. sikkimensis, M. superba, M. velutina, Pyrus pyrifolia, P. pashia, Prunus cerasiodes, P. cornuta, P. jenkinsii, Ribes graciale, Rubus ellipticus, R. moluccanus, R. reticulatus, R. lasiocarpus, Myrica esculenta.

· Gangetic plains: Aegle marmelos, Cordia myxa, C. rothii, Emblica officinalis, Grewia asiatica, Morus spp.; Phoenix spp.; Syzygium spp.; Zizyphus nummularia and other spp.; and Manilkara hexandra (more in north-western plains).

· Indus plains: as in Gangetic plains; meagre occurrence of Syzygium, rich variaton in Carissa congesta.

· Western pensisular tract: Artocarpus heterophyllus, A. lakoocha, Garcinia indica, Diospyros spp., Ensete superba, Mangifera indica, Mimosops elengii, Spondias pinnata, Vitis spp., Zizyphus oenoplia, Z. rugosa, Rubus ellipticus, R. lasiocarpus, R. moluccanus.

· Western Himalayas: Abelmoschus manihot (tetraphyllus forms), Cucumis hardwickii, C. trigonus, Luffa echinata, L. graveolens, Solanum incanum, S. indicum, Trichosanthes multiloba, T. himalensis.

· Eastern Himalayas: Abelmoschus manihot, Cucumis trigonus, Luffa graveolens, Neoluffa sikkimensis.

· North-eastern region: Abelmoschus manihot (pungens forms), Alocasia macrorhiza, Amorphophallus bulbifer, Colocasia esculenta, Cucumis hystrix, C. trigonus, Dioscorea alata, Luffa graveolens, Moghania vestita, Momordica dioica, M. cochinchinensis, M. macrophylla, M. subangulata, Trichosanthes cucumerina, T. dioica, T. dicaelosperma, T. khasiana, T. ovata, T. truncata, Solanum indicum.

· Gangetic plains: Abelmoschus tuberculatus, A. manihot, (tetraphyllus forms), Luffa echinata, Momordica cymbalaria, M. dioica, M. cochinchinesis, Solanum incanum, S. indicum.

· Indus plains: Momordica balsamina, Citrullus colocynthis, Cucumis prophetarum.

· Western peninsular tract: Abelmoschus angulosus, A. moschatus, A. manihot (pungens forms), A. ficulneus, Amorphophallus campanulatus, Cucumis setosus, C. trigonus, Luffa graveolens, Momordica cochinchinensis, M. subangulata, Solanum indicum, Trichosanthes anamalaiensis, T. bracteata, T. cuspidata, T. perottitiana, T. nerifolia, T. villosa.

· Eastern peninsular tract -.Amorphophallus campanulatus, Abelmoschus manihot, A. moschatus, Colocasia antiquorum, Cucumis hystrix, C. setosus, Luffa acutangula var. amara, L. graveolens, L. umbellata, Momordica cymbalaria, M. denticulata, M. dioica, M. cochinchinesis, M. subangulata, Solanum indicum, S. melongena (insanum types), Trichosanthes bracteata, T. cordata, T. lepiniana, T. himalensis, T. multiloba.

· Western Himalayas: Lepidium capitatum, L. draba, L. latifolium, L. ruderale.

· Eastern Himalayas: Brassica trilocularis types.

· North-eastern region: Brassica trilocularis types.

· Gangetic plains: Brassica quadrivalvis types, B. tournefortii, Carthamus oxycantha, Sesamum indicum (naturalized), Lepidium spp. (L. draba).

· Western peninsular tract: Sesamum laciniatum, S. prostratum.

· Eastern peninsular tract: Sesamum prostratum.

· Western Himalayas: Linum perenne.

' North-eastern region: Corchorus capsularis, Gossypium arboreum (primitive types).

· Gangetic plains: Corchorus trilocularis, C. tridens, Urena repanda.

· Western peninsular tract: Corchorus acutangulus, C. antichorus, C. fascicularis, C. urticaefolium, Crotalaria retusa, C. striata, Linum mysorense.

· Eastern peninsular tract: Hibiscus cannabinus.

· Widely occurring: Urena lobata.

· Western Himalayas: Allium spp. (A rubellum, A. schoenoprasum, A. tuberosum and others), Carum bulbocastinum.

· Eastern Himalayas: Allium tuberosum, Amomum subulatum, Curcuma zedoaria.

· North-eastern region: Alpina galanga, A. speciosa, Amomum aromaticum, Curcuma amada, C. zedoaria, Piper longum, Piper peepuloides.

· Western peninsular tract: Cinnamomum zeylanicum, Curcuma montana, Myrisica beddomei, M. malabarica, Piper nigrum, P. schmidtii, Zingiber casumunar, Z. officinale, Z. zerumbet.

· Eastern peninsular tract: Curcuma amada, Curcuma angustifolia, C. aromatica (wild forms occur in Chotanagpur plateau), Piper longum, Zingiber zerumbet.

· Western Himalayas: Saccharum filifolium, Miscanthus nepalensis.

· Eastern Himalayas: Saccharum longisetosum, S. sikkimense (Erianthus), Miscanthus nudipus, M. taylorii, Camellia spp.

· North-eastern region: Naranga fallax, Saccharum ravennae, S. longisetosum, S. procerum, S. rufipilum, S. sikkimense, Miscanthus nepalensis, M. nudipus, M. taylorii, M. wardii, Camellia spp.

· Gangetic region: Saccharum rufipilum, S. ravennae, S. arudinaceum, S. bengalense, S. spontaneum.

· Indus plains: Saccharum longisetosum var. hookeri.

· Western peninsular tract: Naranga porphyrocoma.

· Eastern peninsular tract: Naranga porphyrocoma, Saccharum ravennae.

Appendix II (b). Wild relatives and related endemic and/or rare species including endemic cultigens (Arora and Nayar, 1984)

Cereals, millets	: Coix lacryma-jobi var. ma-yuen, Digitaria cruciata var. esculenta, D. sanguinalis subsp. aegyptiaca var. frumentacea, Oryza malampuzhaensis.
Legumes	: Atylosia cajanifolia, A. grandiflora, A. nivea, Canavalia stocksii, Cicer microphyllum, Dolichos bracteatus, D. purpureus - wild, lignosus forms; Lathyrus altaicus, Vigna mungo var. silvestris, V. radiata-sublobata and setulosa, V. grandis, V. capensis.
Fruit types	: Citrus assamensis, C. ichangensis, C. indica, C. latipes, Docynia hookeriana, Malus baccata var. himalaica, Musa cheesmanii, M. glauca, M. flaviflora, M. itinerans, M. nagensium, M. sikkimensis, M. simiarum, M. velutina, Prunus acuminata, P. jenkinsii, P. tomentosa, Pyrus kumaoni and Rubus lineatus.
Vegetable types	: Abelmoschus tuberculatus, Allium rubellum, Curcuma amarissima, Luffa hermaphrodita, L. umbellata, Moghania vestita, Neoluffa sikkimensis, Solanum melongena var. insanum, S. melongena var. potangi, Trichosanthes khasiana, T. majuscula, T. ovata, T. tomentosa, Zingiber intermedium.
Oilseed types	: Sesamum laciniatum and S. prostratum.
Others	: Bunium persicum, Camellia drupifera, C. lutescens, Lilium macklinae, Linum perenne.